BRARY 


[  Form    No.    20 


STATE   OF  CALIFORNIA. 

— /^^^.^zcrT^r-iTriZ;!^. School  District. 


RULES    AND    REG-ULATIONS. 

1.  The  Librarian  appointed  by  the  Trustees  shall  properly  label  and 
number  each  book  in  tlie  District  Library,  and  keep  a  catalogue  of  the 
same,  nhowing  the  title  and  number  of  each  book. 

2.  The  Library  shall  be  opened  for  drawing  and  returning  books  every 


.between  the  hours  of_ 


3.  Every  child  attending  school  shall  be  entitled  to  the  privileges  of 
tlie  Library  ;  but  when  the  number  of  books  is  insufficient  to  supply  all 
the  pupils,  the  Librarian  shall  determine  the  mauner  in  which  books 
may  be  drawn. 

4.  No  person  shall  be  entitled  to  two  books  from  the  Library  at  tlie 
same  time,  and  no  fiimily  shall  draw  more  than  one  book  wliile  other 
families  wishing  books  i  emain  unsupplied. 

5.  No  person  shall  loan  a  Library  book  to  any  one  out  of  his  own 
house,  under  a  penalty  of  fifty  cents  for  each  offense. 

G.  No  person  shall  retain  a  book  from  the  Library  more  than  two 
weeks,  under  a  penalty  of  ten  cents  for  each  day  he  may  so  retain  it;  and 
no  pci-son  may  draw  the  same  book  a  second  time,  while  any  other  per- 
son wislies  to  draw  it. 

7.  Any  person  losing  or  destroying  a  Library  book  shall  pay  the  cost 
of  such  book  and  a  fine  of  fifty  cents;  and  any  person  injuring  a  book  by 
marking,  tearing,  or  unnecessarily  soiling  it,  shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of 
not  less  than  ten  cents  nor  more  than  the  cost  of  the  book,  to  be  deter- 
mined by  tlie  Librarian. 

8.  Any  person  refusing  or  neglecting  to  pay  any  penalty  or  fine,  shall 
not  be  allowed  to  draw  any  book  from  the  Library. 

a.  Any  piTSon  otlier  than  pupils  attending,  resident  in  the  school  dis- 
trict, may  become  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  the  School  Library  by  the 
payment  of  an  admission  fee  of  one  dollar,  and  a  monthly  membership 
of  twenty-five  cents. 

JO.  Any  person  resident  in  the  district,  who  shall  pay  to  the  Trustees 
the  sum  of  ten  dollars,  shall  bo  entitled  to  a  Hie  membership  privilege  of 
the  Library. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Clerk  of  each  Board  of  District  Trustees  and  of  the 
Secri'tary  of  each  Board  of  Education  to  place  each  number  of  the  official 
educational  journal  in  the  School  Library  of  his  district  on  or  before  the 
end  of  the  mouth  in  which  such  number  is  issued. 

Note.— Kacli  Library  hook  must  be  stamped  with  the  ofHcial  District  Stamp.  (See 
Seo.  1712,  amundod  School  Law.) 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/exercisesonwordsOOwillrich 


EXERCISES  ON  WORDS 


DESIGNED   AS   A 


COURSE   OF  PRACTICE 


RUDIMENTS  OF  GRAMMAR  AND  RHETORIC, 


BY 


WILLIAM    RUSSELL, 

EDITOR   OIT   THE   AMEKTCAN  JOURNAL   OF  EDUCATION, 
(first   SERIES.) 


BOSTON: 

WHITTEMORE,  NILES,  AND  HALL. 

AULWAUKIE  :   A.  WHITTEMOKE  AND  CO. 
1856. 


IDUCATIOK  LIBS, 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1856,  by 

WILLIAM  RUSSELL, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massa 

chusetts. 


IN  PREPARATION, 

RHETORICAL    PRAXIS. 

A  Series  of  Exercises  for  Advanced  Students  in  Rhetoric,  by 
the  Author  of  the  present  Manual. 

Education 
Add'l 
GIFT 


andover:  w.  f.  draper, 

8tere0ttper  and  printer. 


/^  IWTBUCTIOH.  ^\ 

(UnlaiiWjttrtUbwyJ 

wo 

7-^ 

UBi^ 

Of 

CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Introductory  Observations. 

. 

7 

Plan  op  the  Course. 

. 

13 

Exercise  L  — Orthoepy 

.        , 

21 

Introductory  Explanations. 

. 

21 

Forms  of  Exercise. 

. 

21 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.    . 

. 

22 

Suggestions  to  Students. 

. 

24 

Current  Errors  in  Pronunciation 

. 

25 

Rules  of  Orthoepy. 

. 

29 

The  Pronunciation  of  Greek  and  Latin 

words 

. 

38 

The  Authority  of  Walker,  as  an 

Ortho- 

epist.            .... 

. 

39 

Words    peculiarly  liable  to  wrong  Ac- 

cent, in  negligent  usage. 

. 

41 

Words  on  the  Pronunciation  of  which 

the  weight  of  authority  is  nearly  bal- 

anced.         .... 

. 

42 

Exercise  II.  —  Orthography 

44 

Eorms  of  Exercise. 

. 

44 

Suggestions. 

45 

Words  of  variable  Orthography. 

. 

49 

Exercise  III.  —  Syllabication. 

53 

Introductory  Explanations. 

. 

53 

Exercise 

56 

Rules  on  Written  Syllabication. 

56 

Suggestions. 

57 

405 


IV  aCONTE 


NikC  iU' 


Exercise  IV.  —  Etymological  Analysis.        .        .  59 

Introductory  Explanatidhs.         .        .  59 

Exercises.    (1.)  Prefixes.        .        .  62 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.     ...  62 

(2.)  Suffixes.            ....  66 

Nouns,  Adjectives,  Verbs.           .        .  69 
(3  )  Primitive  and  Derivative  "Words, 

and  Koots.             ....  70 

Form  of  Exercise.        .        .        .        ,  72 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.         .        .  73 

Exercise  V. — Signification  and  Meaning  of  "Words.  75 

Introductory  Explanations.         .        .  75 

Exercise. 77 

Exercise  VI.  —  Definition  of  Words.      .        .        .  79 

Introductory  Explanations.      .        .  79 

Exercise 81 

Suggestions  to  Students.         .        .  82 

Exercise  VII.  —  Synonyms.            83 

Introductory  Explanations.              .  83 
Exercises.    (1.)  The  collecting  of  Sy- 
nonyms.           .....  85 

Example. 86 

(2.)  Application  of  Synonyms.            .  87 

Example.         .....  87 

(3.)  Definition  of  Synonyms.      .        .  91 

Example. 92 

(4.)  Discrimination  of  Synonyms.       .  94 

Examples 97 

Exercise  VIII.  —  Supplying  Ellipses.       .       .       .101 

Exercise. 101 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.  .        .101 

Suggestions  to  Students.          .        .  102 

Examples.            102 

(1.)  Omission  of  Nouns.          .        .  103 

(2.)  Of  Adjectives 103 

(3.)  Of  Verbs 104 

Elliptical  Exercise  on  Synonyms.       .  105 


CONTENTS.  V 

Exercise  IX.  —  Variation  of  Expression.     .        .  107 

Introductory  Explanations.           .        .  107 

Exercise.            110 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.       .        .        .110 

Suggestions  to  Students.            .        .  ill 

Exercise  X.  —  Analysis  op  Composition.  .        .115 

Introductory  Explanations.        .        .  11.5 

Example 116 

Exercises.      (1.)     Logical    Analysis : 

Theme,  Topics,  Method,  Scope.    .  118 
(2.)    Rhetorical    Analysis  :     "  Ideas," 

"  Eloquence,"  Style.           .        .        .120 
(3.)  Grammatical  Analysis  :  Struc- 
ture, Phraseology,  Choice  of  Words.  122 
Explanatory  Observations.            .        .  125 
Subjects  for  Exercises  in  Analysis.     .        .        .  129 

Extract  1.  Truth Bacon.  129 

"       2.  Learning.      .          ....         Id.  132 

"       3.  Conditious  of  Study.           .        .        .    Locke.  134 

"       4.  Love  of  Truth.        .        .        .        .        Locke.  136 

"       5.  Aids  to  the  Acquisition  of  Knowledge.     Locke.  189 

"      6.  Employment  of  Time.          .        .        Addison.  142 

"       7.  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul.          .    Addison.  146 

"       8.  Wisdom  of  Providence.       .        -        Addison.  150 

"       9.  Good  Intentions Addison.  154 

"     10.  Paradise  Lost Johnson.  157 

"     11.  Metaphysical  Poetry.       .        .        .    Johnson.  159 
"     12.  Parallel  between  Pope  and  Dryden.      Johnson.  163 
"     13.  Advantage  of  reformatory  over  penal  legisla- 
tion  Goldsmith.  167 

"  14.  Present  Suffering  enhances  the  prospect  of  fu- 
ture Eelicity.  .  .  .  Goldsmith.  170 
"  15.  True  Respectability.  Benjamin  Franklin.  173 
"  16.  Ridicule.  .  .  Benjamin  Eranklin.  176 
"  17.  The  Ugly  Leg.  .  Benjamin  Eranklin.  177 
"  18.  Luxury,  Idleness,  and  Industry.  Eranklin.  180 
1# 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Extract  19.  The  Influence  of  professional  Associations  on 

the  sense  of  Beauty.        Rev.  Dk.  Alison.  184 
"       20.  The  Beauty  of  the  Human  Form. 

Rev.  Dr.  Alison.  187 

"       21.  Autumnal  Reflections.  Washington  Irving.  191 

"       22.  Female  Character.        Washington  Irving.  194 
"       23.  A  voyage  up  the  Hudson,  in  the  olden  time. 

Washington  Irving.  196 

"       24.  Poetry     .        William  Ellery  Channing.  199 

"       25.  Permanence  of  Literary  Monuments.       .        .  203 

Montgomery. 
"       26.  Circumstances  under  which  Milton  wrote  Para- 
dise Lost,  and  the  Sonnets.         Macaulay.  204 

APPENDIX 209 

Oral  Lessons 209 

Introductory  Explanations,  designed  for  Pupils  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced for  the  study  of  Grammar 209 

Lesson  1.  —  Language.             ....                .  209 

Lesson  2.  —  Thoughts,  —  Ideas. 210 

Lessons.  —  Propositions,  —  their  Parts.          ,        .        .  211 

Lesson  4.  —  Sentences 212 

Lesson  5.  —  Clauses 214 

Lesson  6.  —  Phrases.           215 

Lesson  7.  —  Words,  Syllables,  Letters.            .        .        ,  216 

Lessons.  —  Orthoepy 217 

Lesson  9.  —  Orthography 218 

Introductory  Explanations,  designed  for  very  young  Pupils.  219 

Lesson  I.  —  Grammar 219 

Lesson  2.  —  Language 220 

Lessons.  —  Words 221 

Lesson  4.  —  Compound  Words 222 

Lesson  5.  —  Syllables 223 

Lesson  6.  —  Letters 224 


INTRODUCTORY  OBSERVATIONS. 


The  following  manual,  published  at  the  request  of  teachers 
who  wish  to  adopt  the  methods  which  it  exemplifies,  embodies 
the  first  part  of  the  Authors  usual  course  of  oral  and  written 
exercises,  designed  to  accompany  the  successive  steps  of  the  pu- 
pil's progress  in  the  study  of  our  own  language.  The  work  is 
intended  to  aid  in  rendering  the  teaching  of  English  grammar 
and  the  rudiments  of  rhetoric,  a  strictly  practical  course  of  train- 
ing, by  leading  the  pupil  to  apply  the  principles  presented  in  the 
oral  instructions  of  his  teacher,  and  the  prescribed  lessons  of  his 
grammatical  and  rhetorical  text-books,  to  immediate  use,  in  a 
series  of  written  exercises,  requiring  an  attentive  study  and  an  exact 
analysis  of  words.  The  design  of  these  exercises,  in  detail,  may 
be  seen,  by  reference  to  the  plan  of  the  course,  on  a  subsequent 
page.  It  may  be  sufficient,  here,  to  say,  that  the  series  comprises, 
in  addition  to  practice  in  orthoepy,  the  analysis  of  words  with  re- 
ference to  their  orthography  and  etymology,  their  consequent  signiji- 

(7) 


8  INTRODUCTORY  OBSERVATIONS. 

cation,  their  appropriate  definitions,  their  distinctive  shades  of  mean- 
ing, and  their  comparative  value  in  expression.  —  This  analytical 
course  of  study  is  accompanied  by  one  oi practical  exemplifications, 
in  the  appropriate  and  discriminating  use  of  words,  in  phrases  and 
sentences,  with  a  view  to  prepare  the  young  student  for  the  correct 
and  effective  expression  of  his  own  thoughts,  and  for  the  right 
interpretation  and  reception  of  those  of  others,  through  the  me- 
dium of  language.  A  closing  exercise  in  the  analysis  of  composi- 
tion, is  added,  to  complete  the  course  of  the  study  of  words,  by 
extending  it  to  practice  in  the  choice  of  expression,  as  an  elemen- 
tary branch  of  rhetoric.  Material  for  this  and  other  exercises,  is 
furnished  in  the  selection  of  essays  and  extracts,  from  eminent  writ- 
ers, whose  style  is  marked  by  peculiar  skill,  or  by  felicity,  in  the 
use  of  language,  with  reference  to  a  characteristic  choice  of  words. 
The  exercises  prescribed  in  the  following  pages,  are  designed, 
principally,  as  a  course  of  practice  for  classes  occupied  with  the 
study  of  English  grammar,  or  of  rhetoric.  They  may  be  adapted, 
however,  by  oral  instruction  from  the  teacher,  so  as  to  furnish  an 
interesting  and  useful  preparatory  training  for  pupils  who  are  yet 
too  young  for  the  formal  study  of  grammar.  Examples  of  oral 
lessons  of  this  description,  may  be  found  in  the  Appendix.  Even 
the  youngest  classes  of  readers  may  be  advantageously  employed 
on  the  orthoepy,  the  orthography,  the  analysis  and  derivation,  the 
definition  and  the  use  of  words,  and  in  the  composition  of  phrases 
and  sentences.  The  only  point  requiring  the  special  assistance 
of  the  teacher,  to  enable  the  pupils  of  such  classes  to  perform  the 
•  whole  series  of  these  exercises,  will  be  found  to  lie  in  the  deriva- 
tion of  words,  and  the  recognition  of  their  roots,  when  these  are 
taken  from  the  ancient  or  from  foreign  languages.  This  part  of 
the  word-exercises  of  young  pupils,  may,  at  the  convenience  of 
the  teacher,  be  made  matter  of  oral  instruction  from  himself,  or 


INTRODUCTORY  OBSERVATIONS.  9 

may  be  inscribed  on  the  blackboard,  by  his  own  hand,  or  that  of 
a  pupil  of  advanced  standing,  till,  by  progress  in  years  and  capa- 
city, the  learner  can  be  classed  with  those  who  make  use  of  a  dic- 
tionary large  enough  to  furnish  the  derivation  of  such  words. 

It  is  unquestionably  true,  that  one  great  fault  in  school  train- 
ing, has,  in  past  years,  been  the  custom  of  commencing  the  for- 
mal study  of  grammar  too  early.  The  subject  being,  by  this  inju- 
dicious course,  placed  beyond  the  mental  reach  of  the  young  be- 
ginner, could  only  be  followed  mechanically  and  listlessly ;  and 
the  mind,  forestalled  in  its  working,  was  precluded  from  the  plea- 
sure which  it  might  otherwise  have  enjoyed,  by  taking  up  the 
study  of  grammar  intelligently  and  effectively,  at  a  proper  stage 
of  its  own  development.  The  instructor  has,  too  often,  been 
anxious  to  teach  the  science  of  grammar  before  the  pupil  has  had 
any  opportunity^  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  facts  and  the 
principles  of  language.  But  these  are  the  very  ground  on  which 
the  foundation  of  grammatical  instruction  must  be  laid ;  they  are, 
in  fact,  —  when  systematically  arranged  and  classified,  —  them- 
selves, the  science  of  grammar,  from  which  the  art  of  correct  ex- 
pression is,  in  due  season,  to  be  drawn. 

The  analytic  method  of  presenting  the  subject  of  grammar,  — 
originally  introduced  in  the  schools  of  Germany,  subsequently  in 
those  of  England,  and,  more  recently,  by  Professors  Alpheus 
Crosby  and  S.  S.  Greene,  in  those  of  our  own  country,  —  is  doing 
much  to  revolutionise  our  modes  of  teaching,  in  this  department, 
and  to  diffuse  more  philosophic  and  rational  views  on  the  whole 
subject  of  grammatical  instruction.  To  the  benefits,  however,  ' 
arising  from  the  use  of  any  text-book,  an  extensive  course  of 
practical  grammar,  requiring  the  actual  study  and  use  of  language, 
in  daily  exercises,  is  an  important  addition,  without  which,  little 
progress  can  be  made  towards  the  acknowledged  end  of  grammar, 


10  INTRODUCTORY    OBSERVATIONS. 

as  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  with  propriety.*  On  the  pro- 
cesses of  actual  training  in  the  use  of  language  we  can  hardly 
commence  too  early.  The  youngest  pupil  of  a  reading  class,  is 
ready  not  only  for  the  exercise  of  framing  simple  and  short 
phrases  and  sentences,  but  of  learning  how  to  study  and  use 
words  with  discernment.  His  spelling-book,  or  his  vocabulary, 
should,  by  the  skill  of  his  teacher,  be  converted  into  a  rich  cabi- 
net of  specimens,  which  it  is  a  delight  to  examine  and  to  handle. 
A  class  of  students,  quite  different  in  age  and  attainments  from 
those  just  mentioned,  will,  it  is  hoped,  find  the  course  of  exercises 
prescribed  in  the  following  pages  adapted  to  the  higher  purposes 
of  self-culture,  with  reference  to  the  formation  of  style.  The  most 
critical  knowledge  of  rhetoric,  is  of  little  service  for  the  actual 
business  of  composition,  much  less  for  that  of  living  instruction, 
when  it  is  not  followed  by  constant  practice  in  expression,  both 
written  and  oral.  The  few  exercises  in  this  department,  which  the 
routine  of  academic  and  college  instruction  demands,  are  utterly 
insufficient,  as  a  preparation  for  the  requirements  of  after  life. 
Persevering  personal  application,  for  successive  years,  is  the  only 
Condition  on  which  a  ready  command  of  accurate  and  impressive 
language  can  be  acquired.  In  this,  as  in  any  other  art,  it  is  the 
patient  and  repeated  practice  of  elementary  exercises,  which  alone 
can  give  expertness.  Our  existing  modes  of  education,  as  re- 
gards our  own  language,  are  so  exceedingly  limited  and  imper- 
fect, that,  in  the  course  of  nearly  forty  years'  experience  in  pub- 
lic and  in  private  instruction,  in  the  department  of  rhetoric,  the 
author  of  the  present  work  has  found  few  individuals,  either  among 
practical  teachers,  or  the  graduates  of  our  colleges,  whose  lan- 

*  The  Grammar  of  Composition,  by  Messrs.  Tower  and  Tweed, 
now  furnishes  a  manual  admirably  adapted  to  the  general  purposes 
of  grammatical  training,  in  practical  forms. 


INTRODUCTORY    OBSERVATIONS.  11 

guage,  would  bear  the  test,  when  tried  by  the  standard  of  mere 
grammatical  or  even  orthographical  accuracy.  The  exercises  sug- 
gested, in  this  manual,  to  the  student  of  rhetoric,  may  seem,  some- 
times, of  too  elementary  a  character  to  be  practically  useful. 
But  it  is  in  these  rudimental  forms  of  culture  and  discipline,  that 
our  established  forms  of  education  are  most  deficient ;  and  prac- 
tice in  these  is  what  is  most  needed  in  the  processes  of  training 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  correct  habit. 

Since  the  Author  first  adopted  the  following  plan  of  exercises 
on  words,  in  the  year  1820,  and  published  a  part  of  it  in  his 
Grammar  of  Composition,  in  1824,  many  valuable  contributions 
to  this  department  of  education,  have  been  furnished  by  eminent 
instructors,  in  England  and  in  the  United  States.  But,  hitherto, 
these  have  been  written  on  detached  branches  of  the  subject  5  and 
they  arc  accessible  only  in  numerous  separate  volumes ;  —  both 
of  which  circumstances  are  a  serious  inconvenience  to  the  teach- 
er who  wishes  to  give  unity,  and  compactness,  and  tangible  form, 
to  his  methods  of  instruction.  —  The  present  work,  —  as  may  bo 
observed,  from  its  form  and  plan,  —  is  but  a  suggestive  outline, 
to  which  the  skill  of  the  teacher  and  the  diligence  of  the  student, 
are  to  give  life  and  value.  With  such  aids,  it  will,  the  author 
hopes,  prove  useful  in  all  seminaries  in  which  English  grammar 
and  rhetoric  are  taught.  Its  highest  purpose  will  have  been  fully 
served,  if  it  help  to  attract,  in  any  instance,  an  early  and  earnest 
attention  to  the  study  of  the  noble  language  which  it  is  our  privi- 
lege, as  a  people,  to  inherit  and  to  use,  and  which  certainly  re- 
quires, in  the  processes  of  instruction,  a  degree,  at  least,  of  that 
sedulous  attention  to  practical  training,  in  its  various  forms,  which 
every  classical  teacher  claims  as  due  to  the  proper  study  of  the 
ancient  languages.  —  No  department  of  education  furnishes  a 
more  excellent  intellectual  discipline  than  this  for  the  young 


12         INTRODUCTORY  OBSERVATIONS. 

mind,  a  more  useful  accomplishment  for  the  purposes  of  daily- 
life,  or  a  more  eft'ective  process  for  the  cultivation  and  develope- 
ment  of  taste.  An  early  intelligent  appreciation  of  a  language  so 
copious,  so  forcible,  and  so  varied  in  character  as  the  English, 
ensures  a  discriminating  and  genuine  relish,  in  after  life,  for  the 
masterpieces  of  its  unrivalled  literature,  so  fraught  with  all  the 
purest  and  most  auspicious  elements  of  moral  influence. 

The  study  of  language  extends  over  so  many  and  so  widely 
different  stages  of  education,  that,  to  present  an  appropriately 
graduated  series  of  exercises  on  words,  it  was  necessary  to  era- 
brace  a  corresponding  diversity  in  the  subjects  comprised  in  the 
present  volume.  To  lay  out  the  whole  field  of  culture,  in  this  de- 
partment, in  its  natural  unity,  and,  at  the  same  time,  its  proper 
extent,  the  plan  must  include  matter  adapted  to  strictly  elemen- 
tary instruction,  to  successive  steps  of  progress,  and  to  advanced 
attainments.  .  As  a  manual  for  teachers  occupied  with  classes  in 
all  these  diversified  conditions,  it  became  necessary  that  the  fol- 
lowing pages  should  embrace  a  wide  variety  of  exercises,  from 
which  individuals  might  make  such  selections  as  the  circumstan- 
ces of  their  own  classes  might  seem  to  require.  An  incidental  aid 
was  also  to  be  proffered,  in  the  plan  of  the  work,  to  students  pur- 
suing a  course  of  self-culture  in  expression,  by  furnishing  them 
with  material  adapted  to  their  personal  purposes.  —  These  ex- 
planations will,  it  is  thought,  be  sufficient  to  account  for  the  great 
difference  of  character  in  the  contents  of  this  volume,  in  which,  as 
a  mere  handbook  of  exercises,  considerations  of  symmetry  and 
taste  are  necessarily  sacrificed  to  the  claims  of  practical  utility. 


r-. 


EXERCISES  ON  WORDS. 


PLAN   OF  THE   COURSE. 

The  object  in  view  in  the  course  of  exercises 
prescribed  in  the  following  pages,  is  to  secure  a 
thorough  knowledge  and  expert  use  of  the  words 
of  our  language,  as  regards, 

(I.)  Orthoepy,  or  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
words,  as  they  address  the  ear. 

(11.)  Orthography,  or  the  correct  mode  of 
spelling  them,  in  written  form,  presented  to  the 
eye. 

(III.)  Visible  Syllabication,  or  the  proper 
mode  of  dividing  words  into  syllables,  to  the  eye^ 
for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  voice  to  the  proper 
sound  to  the  ear. 

Thus,  the  word  rec-re-a-tion  is  properly  so  divided 
in  the  columns  of  the  spelling-book,  and  in  the  or- 
thoepical  columns  of  the  dictionary,  in  which  the  in- 
tention is  to  suggest,  through  the  eye,  the  oral  divi- 
sion into  syllables,  as  presented  to  the  ear,  in  the 
orthoepy,  or  correct  pronunciation  of  the  word ;  the 
term  rec-re-aiion  having,  by  the  law  of  usage,  a 
meaning  quite  different  from  that  of  the  term  re- 
creation. 

2  (13) 


14  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

(IV.)  Etymological  Analysis,  or  the  division 
of  words  into  their  component  parts,  according 
to  their  meaning  suggested  to  the  mind^  or  the 
process  of  tracing  the  composition  and  derivation 
of  words  ; —  (1.)  resolving  compound  words  into 
the  simple  words  of  which  they  are  composed; 
(2.)  detaching  the  initial  and  final  syllables  of 
a  word,  according  to  their  significance  as  prefixes 
and  affixes^  or  suffixes ;  and,  (3.)  tracing  the  root^ 
—  the  original  term  or  syllable,  —  which  is  the 
main  significant  element  of  a  word,  and  deter- 
mines its  meaning  and  application. 

Thus,  the  word  used  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  as 
an  example  of  oral  syllabication,  when  it  is  subject- 
ed to  etymological  analysis,  and  resolved  into  its 
component  elements  of  signification,  suggested  to 
the  mind,  although  properly  pronounced  rec-reation, 
is  divided  thus  re-creat-ion ;  re-  being  \he  prefix^  -ion 
the  svffix,  and  -creat-  the  root  of  the  word. 

(V.)  The  Signification  and  Meaning  of 
WORDS.  Under  the  former  of  these  heads  is 
comprehended  the  exercise  of  tracing,  wherever 
practicable,  the  import  of  a  word  to  its  primary 
sense,  —  the  significance  of  its  primitive  elements 
of  composition  or  of  derivation :  under  the  latter, 
that  of  stating  the  secondary,  or  actual  sense, 
whether  modified  or  otherwise,  in  which  it  is  em- 
ployed in  the  current  usage  of  our  own  day. 

We  learn,  thus,  that  the  written  word  recreation 
signifying,  originally,  creating  again,  or  anew,  and 
originally  pronounced  re-creation,  though  subsequent- 
ly, rec-reation,  implies  a  reference  to  that  newness, 
or    freshness,  of   feehng,  wliich    attends   exercise 


PLAN    OF    THE    COURSE.  15 

properly  taken  for  relaxation  or  amusement,  and 
causes  the  person  previously  worn  out  or  exhausted, 
to  feel  as  if  created  anew,  —  or,  in  customary  phrase, 
"  made  over  again."  The  actual  current  meaning 
of  the  word,  however,  regards  the  act,  rather  than 
the  purpose,  of  recreative  exercise,  and  applies  it  in- 
discriminately to  all  forms  of  amusement,  play,  or 
sport,  without  reference  to  their  eiFect  on  body  or 
mind. 


(VI.)  Definition,  —  by  which  the  signification 
of  a  word  is  verified  by  reference  to  a  description 
of  the  object,  or  a  definition  of  the  idea,  which  it 
represents. 

Thus,  the  word  recreation  may,  in  consistency  with 
its  etymology,  be  properly  defined  as  the  renovation 
of  hodily  and  mental  condition,  by  change  of  occupa- 
tion; or,  in  accommodation  to  its  customary  accepta- 
tion, as  exercise  taken  for  purposes  of  pleasure  rather 
than  utility. 

(VII.)  Synonyms.  The  exercises  practised  un- 
der this  head,  comprise,  (1.)  a  collection  of  all  the 
words  of  our  language,  which  have  nearly  the 
same  signification  with  that  of  a  given  word ; 
(2.)  the  application  of  these,  individually  and  dif- 
ferentially, in  phrases  or  sentences  so  worded 
that  no  other  member  of  the  given  family  of  sy- 
nonyms could,  with  propriety,  be  substituted  for 
the  one  embodied  in  the  illustration ;  (3.)  the  de- 
finition of  synonyms,  by  a  common  general  term, 
used  as  a  test  to  prove  their  general  unity  of  mean- 
ing, by  their  actual  relation  to  one  and  the  same 
primary  idea,  expressed  by  that  term  in  its  most 
comprehensive  sense;  (4.)  the  discrimination  of 


16  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

synonymous  words,  by  a  statement  of  the  distinc- 
tion founded  on  the  specific  difference  of  their  im- 
port, evolved  by  logical  definition. 

Of  these  four  forms  of  exercise  the  following  may 
serve  as  examples. 

(1.)  Collection  of  Synonyms.  —  "Recreation,"  — 
exercise,  diversion,  relaxation,  amusement,  enter- 
tainment, interlude,  pastime,  play,  game,  sport,  frohc. 

(2.)  Application  of  Synonyms.  —  "  It  is  not  enough 
that  we  allow  sufficient  time  for  rest,  and  for  relaxa- 
tio7i  from  the  severity  of  intense  application.  Both 
body  and  mind  require  recreation,  to  renew  their 
vitality  and  restore  their  energy,  when  wearied  or 
worn  by  monotony,  or  exhausted  by  exertion.  When 
the  faculties  have  become  torpid  by  long-continued 
inaction,  they  even  require  active  exercise,  for  the 
renewal  of  their  force.  Long-sustained  mental  ap- 
plication must  be  relieved  by  resort  to  diversion. 
Profound  thought  on  grave  subjects,  intense  medita- 
tion, the  solution  of  intricate  problems,  the  prosecu- 
tion of  abstruse  investigations,  the  performing  of 
complicated  calculations,  must  give  place,  occasion- 
ally, to  amusement,  if  we  would  retain  that  very 
power  of  cogitation  which  we  wish  to  exert.  If  our 
amusement  take  the  form  of  a  pleasant  social  pas- 
time, it  will  be  all  the  more  salutary.  The  man  who 
does  not  wish  to  become  stiff  in  body,  and  rigid  in 
mind,  must  accustom  himself  to  play,  and  to  games 
which  tend  to  give  phancy  and  grace  combined  with 
strength.  The  gravest  senator  is  not  out  of  place, 
when  taking  part  in  the  sports  or  even  the  frolics  of 
children.  Such  interludes  unbend  the  sternness  of 
manhood,  and  not  only  give  entertainment  to  the 
fancy,  and  animation  to  the  spirits,  but  meUorate  the 
heart,  and  refresh  our  whole  being." 

(3.)  Definition  of  Synonyms.  —  Generic  or  general 
term,  —  Exercise.     Recreation,  renovating  exercise  ; 


PLAN    OF    THE    COURSE.  17 

Diversion,  s2:>ortive  exercise ;  Relaxation,  restorative 
remission  of  exercise ;  Amusement,  entertaining  ex- 
ercise ;  Entertainment,  amusive  inental  exercise ;  In- 
terlude, intervening  amusive  exercise ;  Pastime,  fes- 
tive form  of  exercise ;  Play,  pleasurable  exercise ; 
Game,  regulated  amusive  exercise ;  Sport,  animating 
exercise ;  Frolic,  exhilarating  exercise. 

(4.)  Discrimination  of  Synonyms. 

Recreation  (a) :  Diversion  (b).  Distinction,  found- 
ed on  the  difference  between  general  (a)  and  parti- 
cular (b).  Exemplification :  "  Diversion  does  not  al- 
ways prove  a  wholesome  form  of  recreation^ 

Recreation  (a) :  Relaxation  (b).  Distinction,  — 
difference  between  action  and  remission ;  e.  g.  "  The 
restorative  influence  of  relaxation,  to  the  weary,  ren- 
ders it,  sometimes,  preferable  to  the  most  enlivening 
recreationy 

Amusement  (a) :  Entertainment  (b).  Distinction, 
—  difference  between  ^e^eraZ  (a)  and  particular  (b) ; 
e.  g.  "  Theatrical  entertainments  were  the  chief  form 
of  popular  amusement  among  the  Athenians." 

Pastime  (a):  Interlude  (b).  Distinction,  —  dif- 
ference between  continuous  'progression  (a)  and  in- 
terruption (b);  e.g.  "The  masques  and  pageants, 
and  similar  pastmes,  of  the  middle  ages,  were  inter- 
spersed with  frequent  interludes,  designed  to  relieve 
the  attention  and  enliven  the  feelings  of  the  spec- 
tators." 

Play  (a):  Game  (b).  Distinction,  —  difference  he- 
tween  general  (a)  and  particular  (b) ;  e.  g.  "  The 
healthful  effect  of  play  is  aided  by  its  taking  the  re- 
gulated form  of  a  game!' 

Sport  (a):  Frolic  (b).  Distinction,  —  difference  m 
degree  of  activity ;  e.  g.  "  The  boys'  sport  soon  end- 
ed in  the  most  uproarious /ro/ic." 

(VIII.)  The  Supplying  of  Ellipses,  —  the 
replacing  of  words  intentionally  omitted  in  the 

2# 


18  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

form  of  exercise  prescribed,  which  is  designed  to 
furnish  opportunity  for  practice  and  discipline  in 
the  appropriate  and  discriminating  use  of  words. 

Eaximple.  — "  The  hours  of  the  afternoon  were 
passed  in  very  [  1  ]  society,  and  in  very  [  2  ] 
occupation.  Some  of  the  party  had  just  received 
the  [  3  ]  inteUigence  of  the  health  and  prosperity 
of  near  relatives  abroad.  The  [  4  ]  approach  of 
evening  heightened  the  glow  of  [  5  ]  feeling  in 
the  social  circle  around  the  parlor  fire;  yet  all  re- 
ceived with  pleasure  the  unexpected  and  [  6  ]  in- 
vitation to  a  sleigh-ride  by  moonlight." 

[1]  agreeable,  [2]  pleasing,  [3]  gratifying,  [4]  wel- 
come, [5]  cheerful,  [6]  acceptable. 

(IX.)  Variation  of  Expression,  —  the  trans- 
lation of  selected  passages  into  words  nearly 
equivalent  in  signification.  This  process  is  de- 
signed, as  a  practical  exercise  in  etymology,  of 
which  the  main,  though  not  the  exclusive,  object, 
is,  to  train  the  student  to  a  ready  recognition  of 
the  difference  between  idiomatic  and  unidiomatic 
expression,  as  dependent  on  the  preponderance 
of  words  of  Saxon  or  of  Latin  origin,  in  the 
phraseology  of  sentences,  and  the  consequent 
character  of  style. 

Example.  —  There    are    frequently   mornings    in 
"  "  often  early  hours  " 

March,  when  an  admirer  of  nature  may  enjoy, 
a        "        day,         "       a  lover  "         "  "         expe- 

in  a  stroll,     sensations  not  to  be  exceeded,  or, 
rience     *'  "  ramble,     feelings  "     "     "   surpassed        " 

perhaps,  equalled  by  any  thing  which  the  full 

it  may  be,  paralleled,  "   aught  "        " 

glory  of  summer  can   awaken,  —  morn- 

ample  splendor  "     midsummer  "      excite,  " 


PLAN    OF    THE    COURSE.  19 

ings   which  tempt  us  to    cast  the  memory  of 

"  "       solicit      "    "      throw      "   remembrance  " 

winter,  or  the  fear    of  its  recurrence  out 

the  winter  months,  "      "     dread     "  their  return     " 

of  our  minds.         The  air  is  mild  and  balmy, 

"     "     thoughts.  "     atmosphere       "   bland     "     fragrant, 

with,  now  and  then,  a  cool  gush  by  no  means  un- 

"       occasionally,  "   fresh  rush  not  dis- 

pleasant,  but  on  the  contrary,  contributing  towards 

agreeable,       "  rather  conducive  to 

that  pecuhar  and  cheering  feehng  which  we 

"      special  "       exhilarating  sensation  "  " 

experience  only  in  spring." 

feel  "       "  the  opening  season  of  the  year.* 

(X.)  Analysis  of  Composition.  —  Li  this  de- 
partment, the  study  of  words  is  carried  into  the  ele- 
mentary part  of  rhetoric,  —  as  a  step  essential  to  the 
completing  of  a  course  of  exercises  on  words.  The 
perfect  fitness  of  a  word  for  the  purpose  of  expres- 
sion, requires,  in  many  cases,  attention  to  something 
more  than  merely  its  etymological  signification,  or  a 
strictly  logical  definition  of  its  import.  Kegard  must 
be  paid  to  its  suggestive  power  to  prompt  the  ima- 
gination and  touch  the  heart.  Its  influence  exerted 
on  the  mind  by  the  laws  of  association,  must  be 
considered.  This  relation  of  language  becomes  an 
important  object  of  attention  in  the  discipline  which 
prepares  the  student  for  the  appreciation  not  only 
of  the  higher  strains  of  eloquence  and  of  poetry,  but 
for  the  perception  of  truth,  force,  or  beauty,  of  ex- 
pression, in  any  form  of  composition. 

The  appropriateness,  therefore,  of  even  a  single 

*  The  design  of  the  above  form  of  exercise,  is,  as  in  translat- 
ing from  a  foreign  language,  to  give  the  nearest  synonyms  to 
the  words  of  the  text,  without  regard,  for  the  moment,  to  the 
comparative  inferiority  of  style  necessarily  attending  the  second- 
ary language  of  translation,  when  contrasted  with  that  of  the  ori- 
ginal. Substitution  of  terms,  and  approximation  of  sense,  are 
all  that  we  require. 


20  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

word,  becomes  justly  a  subject  of  study,  and  a 
theme  for  practice,  in  connection  with  the  requisi- 
tions of  rhetorical  criticism,  in  that  department  of 
the  science  which  treats  of  the  different  character- 
istics of  style,  as  prescribed  by  the  nature  of  different 
subjects.  This  inseparable  connection  between  sub- 
ject, thought,  and  expression,  suggests  the  necessity 
of  a  course  of  critical  training  in  the  analysis  of  com- 
position, by  which  the  character  of  the  subject,  and 
the  train  of  thought,  suggested  by  it,  are  ascertained 
and  defined,  with  a  view  to  determine  the  fitness  not 
only  of  a  given  style  of  diction,  or  form  of  phraseo- 
logy, but  of  a  single  word  to  give  expression  to  an 
idea. 

The  practical  exercise  in  this  department,  con- 
sists in  the  careful  analysis  of  a  composition,  for 
the  pm'pose  of  placing  clearly  before  the  mind, 
tJie  subject  of  the  piece ;  the  train  of  thought  fol- 
lowed by  the  author ;  the  character  of  his  ideas, 
as  to  their  adaptation,  in  detail,  to  his  subject, 
and  to  its  developement  in  expression ;  his  rheto- 
rical traits  of  style^  as  harmonising  with  his  theme 
and  his  ideas ;  and  his  consequent  choice  of 
words,  in  the  details  of  expression.  —  This  part 
of  a  word-exercise  will  be  found  more  fully  stated 
in  the  Section  headed  "  Exercise  X." 


EXERCISE  I 

ORTHOEPY. 

Introductory  Explanations.^ — The  design  of  the 
following  exercises,  is  to  secure  the  benefits  of  a 
thorough  course  of  study  and  practice,  in  their  re- 
spective branches.  The  first  object,  therefore,  pre- 
sented for  attention,  in  the  analysis  of  words,  is  their 
orthoepy,  or  correct  pronunciation.  This  order  is 
adopted  not  merely  because,  in  actual  experience, 
from  infancy  onward,  the  learner  has  his  attention 
attracted  to  spoken  language  before  written,  but  from 
the  fact  that,  in  dictating  a  word  to  be  spelled, 
whether  orally  or  in  writing,  by  the  pupil,  the  teacher 
necessarily  gives  it  out  orally ^  and,  in  the  practice  of 
careful  instructors,  the  pupil  is  directed  to  repeat  the 
word  orally,  before  spelling  it.  The  learner's  atten- 
tion is  thus,  whether  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
directed  to  the  pronunciation  of  the  word,  before 
he  can  determine  its  orthography. 

Form  of  'Exercise.  —  A  convenient  mode  of 
prescribing  the  orthoepical  part  of  an  exercise  on 
words,  is  as  follows.  —  The  teacher  directs  the 
pupils  of  a  class  to  prepare  themselves  carefully, 
beforehand,  for  the  exact  pronunciation  of  every 

^  The  explanatory  observations  intended  for  the  student,  and 
the  practical  suggestions  addressed  to  the  teacher,  are,  throughout 
this  volume,  presented  in  smaller  type,  and  are  meant  to  be  i-ead, 
merely.  The  exercise  to  be  prescribed,  or  performed,  is  uniformly 
distinguished  by  larger  type. 

(21) 


22  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

word  in  their  reading  lesson  for  the  day  ;  so  that 
he  may  call  on  any  individual  for  any  word  se- 
lected from  it,  to  be  discussed  in  the  following 
manner  :  (1.)  pronouncing  the  whole  word^  with 
the  true,  full,  and  exact  sound  of  every  syllable, 
and  of  every  letter  which  is  not  a  silent  one,  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  word  is  properly  uttered 
in  public  reading  or  speaking;  (2.)  enunciating 
separately,  and  with  perfect  distinctness,  every 
syllable  of  the  word,  as  a  group  of  sounds ;  (3.) 
articulating,  with  perfect  exactness,  the  sound  — 
not  the  name  —  of  every  letter  which  is  not  a 
silent  one,  in  every  syllable,  successively ;  (4.) 
after  this  analysis,  repeating  the  proper  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  whole  word,  in  a  full,  clear,  distinct, 
but  easy  and  fluent  manner. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — In  the  "3d"  part  of  this 
exercise,  the  7iames  of  letters  are  superseded  by 
their  sounds,  and  are  therefore  dropped  as  unneces- 
sary in  an  advanced  lesson  in  orthoepy ;  although, 
in  primer  and  spelling-book  lessons,  the  naming  of 
every  letter,  and  the  repetition  of  every  syllable,  are 
equally  important,  as  securities  for  close  attention  to 
details,  and  for  consequent  accuracy  in  pronuncia- 
tion. 

Teachers  to  whom  the  subject  of  phonography  is 
familiar,  will  find  the  application  of  that  method  of 
indicating  orthoepy  a  useful  means  of  securing  defi- 
nite and  exact  attention  to  the  true  sound  of  every 
letter  and  syllable  of  a  word.  The  phonographic 
writing,  on  the  blackboard,  of  every  word  of  the 
lesson,  selected  for  practice  in  orthoepy,  may  advan- 
tageously follow  the  "4th"  part  of  the  oral  lesson 
described  above.  —  Teachers  who  prefer,  for  the 
purpose  of  such  an  exercise,  the  use  of  the  orthoepi- 
cal  notation  adopted  in  the  dictionaries  of  Worcester 


ORTHOEPY.  23 

and  Webster,  will  find  it  serviceable,  though  not 
so  precise  as  that  employed  in  the  phonographic 
method. 

Three  classes  of  words,  in  lessons  on  orthoepy, 
require  particular  attention:  (1.)  the  frequently  re- 
curring monosyllables,  to,  of,  and,  ivith,  the,  etc.,  which, 
owing  to  their  comparative  unimportance,  are  so  liable 
to  be  slighted  or  corrupted,  through  negligence ;  (2.) 
words  which  are  commonly  mispronounced  in  popu- 
lar and  juvenile  usage ;  and  in  regard  to  which  the 
ear  is  prone  to  be  misled,  through  the  prevalence 
of  false  habit;  (3.)  rare  and  difficult  words,  particu- 
larly proper  names.  All  such  words  should  be  brought 
up  more  frequently  for  discussion,  and  should  be  more 
carefully  practised,  than  others, — sometimes  in  simul- 
taneous utterance  by  the  whole  class. 

In  assigning  the  daily  lesson  in  orthoepy,  the  teacher 
may  properly  dwell,  in  anticipation,  on  such  words  as 
are  liable  to  diversity  of  pronunciation,  and  prescribe 
the  style  which,  in  his  own  judgment,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. "When  conducting  the  exercise,  at  the  time 
appropriated  for  recitation,  the  teacher  may,  as  a. 
security  for  careful  previous  study,  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils,  write,  in  customary  orthographical  form,  se- 
lected words,  on  the  blackboard,  and  require  of  the 
class,  or  of  an  individual,  to  give  successively,  as  men- 
tioned before,  the  pronunciation  of  the  words,  the 
enunciation  of  their  syllables,  and  the  articulation  of 
the  sounds  of  their  letters.  It  will  be  a  useful  varia- 
tion of  method  to  invert  the  process,  and,  instead 
of  the  analytic  form,  to  adopt  the  constructive  one, 
and  commence  with  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  proceed 
to  the  enunciation  of  the  syllables,  and  thence  to  the 
pronunciation  of  the  words,  successively. 

It  will  be  found  a  very  useful,  as  well  as  highly 
interesting,  form  of  exercise,  to  have  the  pupils 
themselves,  in  turn,  take,  for  the  time,  the  place  of 
teacher,  and  conduct  such  a  lesson  as  has  been  de- 


24  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

scribed.  Nothing  has  a  surer  tendency  to  secure 
attention,  and  to  form  correct  habits. 

The  orthoepical  form  of  word-exercises,  is  meant 
to  be  a  daily  virtual  review  of  the  work  originally 
done  by  the  learner,  in  the  lessons  in  oral  spelling 
and  syllabication,  presented  in  the  successive  col- 
umns of  his  spelling-book,  and  to  induce  him  to 
make  constant  use  of  his  dictionary,  for  further 
guidance.  Pupils  whose  earliest  training  may  have 
been  less  accurate  or  regular  than  is  desirable,  will 
thus  be  enabled  to  atone,  in  degree,  for  the  imperfec- 
tion of  the  previous  stages  of  their  education,  by 
supplying  deficiencies  and  correcting  errors.  To  all 
classes  of  pupils  it  may  be  a  useful  daily  exercise 
to  analyse,  in  the  manner  suggested,  a  few  lines  from 
the  first  paragraph  of  their  reading  lesson. 

Suggestion  to  Students.  —  To  students  somewhat 
advanced,  who  desire  to  attain  to  a  systematic  ac- 
curacy in  their  knowledge  and  use  of  the  English 
language,  and,  more  particularly,  to  such  as  intend 
to  be  occupied  in  teaching,  or  in  public  speaking,  a 
self-appointed  task,  of  a  description  similar  to  the 
foregoing,  will  prove  highly  serviceable.  —  Every 
teacher  should  be  a  competent  living  authority  on 
every  word  of  our  language  to  which  a  dictionary 
can  furnish  access ;  that  he  may  be  able  to  ensure 
the  accuracy  of  his  pupils  by  liis  own  intelligent  and 
appropriate  exemplification.  On  all  variable  and 
controverted  words,  as  to  orthoepy,  he  should  be 
critically  versed  in  the  comparative  merits  of  every 
style  proposed,  that  he  may  not  be  the  slave  of  local 
prejudice  or  individual  caprice.  Worcester's  Dic- 
tionary, or  the  Harper's  edition  of  Webster's,*  will 

=*  The  revision  which  Webster's  Dictionary  has  undergone,  in 
the  department  of  orthoGpy,  under  the  excellent  editorial  decisions 
of  Professor  Goodrich,  renders  the  above-mentioned  edition  pe- 
culiarly valuable  to  teachers  and  students.  Dr.  Goodrich's  critical 
judgment  and  refined  taste  have  left  comparatively  little  ground 


ORTHOEPY.  25 

furnish,  in  tlieir  lists  of  words  liable  to  different  styles, 
of  pronunciation,  a  useful  guide  to  the  requisite 
knowledge  in  tliis  department  of  instruction. 

The  importance  of  attention  to  early  habit,  with 
regard  to  appropriate  style  in  pronunciation,  is  evi- 
dent, not  only  with  respect  to  the  distinctness  of 
articulation  which  it  produces,  but  the  standard  of 
taste  and  scholarship  which  it  implies,  in  students 
and  teachers,  and,  not  less,  in  professional  speakers. 
The  prevalent  negligence  on  tliis  point,  is  painfully 
manifest  in  the  style  of  many  public  addresses  in 
which  the  evidences  of  culture  and  refinement  were 
rightly  to  be  expected.  The  comparative  general 
correctness  of  American  usage  in  pronunciation,  does 
not  extend,  in  due  proportion,^  to  the  ranks  of  profes- 
sional life.  Many  a  speaker  who  would  blush  at  the 
inadvertent  use  of  a  false  quantity  in  a  syllable  of 
Latin  or  Greek,  is  not  ashamed  to  betray  a  slovenly 
negligence  in  pronouncing  the  words  of  his  native 
tongue. 


CURRENT  ERRORS  IN  PRONUNCIATION. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — The  general  correctness 
of  style  with  which  the  English  language  is  spoken 
in  the  United  States,  is  freely  admitted,  even  by 
those  whose  national  prejudices  might  well  be  ex- 
pected to  give  an  unfavorable  bias  to  their  judgment. 
This  correctness,  however,  it  ought  never  to  be  for- 
gotten by  teachers,  is  but  comparative  ;  and  a  faith- 
ful discharge  of  the  duties  of  instruction,  requires  a 
critical  exactness  of  ear,  on  the  part  of  those  whose 
business  it  is  to  form  individual  and  national  habit,  in 
this  department  of  culture. 

A  perfectly  correct  style   of   pronunciation,  is   a 

of  objection,  in  regard  to  the  peculiarities  which  formed  the  only 
drawback  from  the  value  of  tlie  original  work. 


26  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

thing  exceedingly  diiRcult  of  attainment,  in  any  com- 
munity in  which  our  language  is  the  native  tongue 
of  the  people.  The  English  language  is  itself  ex- 
tremely irregular  and  arbitrary,  in  its  spoken  forms. 
The  diversity  of  elements  in  its  composition,  suf- 
ficiently accounts  for  this  defect.  In  one  English 
sentence  of  ordinary  length,  the  reader  or  speaker  is 
making  continual  transitions  from  the  characteristic 
style  of  utterance  in  the  German  class  of  dialects  to 
the  widely  diiferent  mode  prevailing  in  the  Romanic, 
and,  particularly,  the  French.  The  spoken  lan- 
guage, moreover,  of  any  nation,  even  the  most  highly 
cultivated,  being  employed  in  the  daily  utterance  of 
all  classes  of  society, — the  uncultivated  as  well  as 
the  learned, — is  always  found  below  the  standard  of 
written  expression,  which  naturally  falls,  more  gen- 
erally, under  the  stricter  cognisance  of  educated 
usage.  The  comparative  neglect,  also,  of  taste  and 
culture,  as  regards  an  influence  on  the  style  of  oral 
expression,  is  a  fault  quite  prevalent  in  most  Anglo- 
Saxon  communities.  A  nervous  dread  of  seeming 
affectation,  has,  within  the  present  century,  taken 
the  place,  both  in  Old  and  New  England,  of  the 
proper  attention  formerly  given,  in  early  training,  to 
the  acquisition  of  a  correct  and  graceful  use  of  lan- 
guage, as  an  attainment  for  which  education  w^as 
regarded  as  responsible.  Every  one  who  can  recall 
examples  of  the  style  of  conversation  in  the  cultivat- 
ed circles  of  the  preceding  period,  is  ready  to  attest 
its  superior  character,  as  contrasted  with  the  negh- 
gence  and  incorrectness  current  in  our  own  day. 

In  addition  to  the  various  circumstances  wliicli 
have  been  mentioned  as  impediments  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  uniform  and  correct  style  of  spoken  lan- 
guage, the  Enghsh  tongue  labors  under  yet  another, 
peculiar  to  itself.  It  has  no  universally  acknowl- 
edged standard  of  decision,  to  which  it  can  refer  in 
a  question  of  propriety.     The   stage,  when  it  was 


ORTHOEPY.  27 

trodden  by  the  members  of  the  royal  household,  — 
and,  on  great  occasions,  by  the  graduates  of  univer- 
sities, and  the  students  of  inns  of  court, — was  justly 
held  the  model  of  pronunciation.  But  that  golden 
age  of  dramatic  literature  and  dramatic  life,  has  long 
since  passed  away.  The  stage,  becoming  obsolete 
itself,  inclines  to  obsolete  and  exploded  usages  ;  and 
no  standard  of  practice,  for  private  life,  could  be  pro- 
posed so  revolting  to  true  taste  and  sound  judgment, 
as  that  which,  by  way  of  disparagement,  is  termed 
theatrical.  The  consentaneous  usage  of  cultivated 
society,  is  the  sole  arbiter,  in  our  day,  of  matters  con- 
nected with  the  forms  of  utterance.  The  pulpit,  the 
bar,  the  stage,  the  legislative  hall,  and  the  popular 
assembly,  are  all  compelled  to  adopt  the  style  thus 
imposed.  But  this  law  of  custom  is  necessarily  very 
vague,  and  not  always  plainly  announced,  or  deci- 
sively enforced  ;  and,  —  as  happens  in  all  cases 
dependent  on  unity  of  opinion  and  action  in  large 
bodies  of  men, — is,  to  a  great  extent,  inoperative. 
After  all  that  can  be  said  or  done  in  the  matter,  a 
large  number  of  the  words  in  the  English  language, 
will  ever  be  liable  to  a  variable  style  of  pronunciation ; 
and,  in  such  circumstances,  no  error  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  rigorist  who  insists  on  the  monopoly  of 
propriety,  and  condemns  the  modes  of  well  sanc- 
tioned usage,  because  at  variance  with  his  personal 
opinion  and  practice. 

Every  attentive  observer  of  national  or  of  local 
custom,  must  be  aware  that,  in  America,  we  are 
liable  to  the  influence  of  causes  which  counteract 
the  general  tendency  to  comparative  accuracy  in  our 
current  style  of  pronunciation.  In  our  New-England 
States,  there  is  a  somewhat  extensive  prevalence  of 
local  peculiarities  of  usage,  inherited  from  ancestral 
custom  in  certain  parts  of  old  England,  but  which 
are,  everywhere  else,  regarded  as  obsolete.  Some 
of  these  are  exemplified  even  in  the  style  of  culti- 


28  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

vated  and  professional  life ;  and  a  few  are  actually 
inculcated  in  the  orthoepy  of  standard  dictionaries. 
The  general  practice  of  educated  persons  in  our 
Middle  States,  as  regards  the  details  of  pronuncia- 
tion, while  it  avoids  prevailing  errors  of  the  class 
just  mentioned,  is  by  no  means  wholly  free  from 
pecuHarities  of  local  custom,  plainly  traceable  to  the 
early  prevalence  of  the  German  language.  The 
pronunciation  of  our  Southern  States  is  characterised 
by  the  predominance  of  an  obsolete  length  and 
breadth  of  vowel  sounds,  such  as  marked  the  style 
of  the  country  gentlemen  of  England,  more  than  a 
century  ago ;  and  the  spoken  language  of  our  West- 
ern States,  is,  to  a  great  extent,  chargeable  with  an 
intermixture  of  the .  local  errors  of  New-England 
with  those  of  the  South. 

A  close,  critical  attention  to  perfect  purity  of  style, 
on  the  part  of  teachers,  and  a  careful  correction  of 
local  errors  in  juvenile  pronunciation,  are  the  only 
securities  for  the  removal  of  faults,  and  for  the 
attainment  of  that  most  desirable  result  of  general 
education,  a  correct  and  appropriate  use  of  our  native 
language.  The  readiness  of  public  sentiment  to 
favor  the  teacher's  office,  in  this  respect,  devolves 
additional  responsibleness,  on  his  part,  to  the  duties 
of  his  station.  In  all  parts  of  the  national  Union, 
there  is  a  prevaihng  disposition  to  submit  to  the 
authority  of  a  recognised  standard  of  orthoepy,  and 
to  adopt  that  of  a  dictionary,  rather  than  the  fluc- 
tuating and  arbitrary  one  of  any  living  or  professional 
form.  But  the  notation  of  orthoepy,  although  given 
in  the  most  exact  of  forms,  in  the  columns  of  a  dic- 
tionary, must  ever  be  interpreted  by  the  voice  of  the 
teacher ;  and  the  coiTCctness  of  his  judgment  and 
practice,  is  necessarily  the  measure  of  his  pupil's 
attainments. 

A  few  of  the  prominent  principles  of  orthoepy, 
wliich  are  most  liable  to  be  neglected  in  current 


ORTHOEPY.  29 

usage,  and  some  examples  of  prevailing  local  error, 
are  here  presented  as  aids  to  the  teacher  in  his 
endeavors  to  form  aright  the  character  of  early  habit 
in  his  pupils. 


RULES    OF    ORTHOEPY. 


Sounds  of  the  letter  A. 


I.  The  vowel  a,  unaccented,  preceding  a  conso- 
nant, sounds,  properly,  as  in  the  word  admit.  —  Ex- 
amples:  Abet,  abound,  alas,  alone,  avow,  away, 
cabal,  caress,  paternity,  variety,  contrary,  customary, 
obduracy. 

Errors :  [A  sounding  as  in  ale,]  "  Aybet,  aybound, 
aylas,  aylone,  ayvow,  ayway,"  etc. 

II.  The  indefinite  article  a,  and  the  vowel  a,  at 
the  end  of  a  word,  sound  properly  as  a  in  admit.  — 
Examples :  A  man,  a  book,  a  place,  algebra,  diplo- 
ma, dilemma,  Asia,  America,  Cuba,  data,  arcana, 
arena,  strata,  alpha. 

Errors:  (1.)  [A  sounding  as  in  ale,]  "  Algebray, 
diplomay,  dilemmay,  etc.  Cubay,  arcanay,"  etc.  (2.) 
[Er,  for  a,]  "  Cuber,  arcaner,  arener,"  etc. 

III.  The  sound  of  a,  in  the  word  and,  and  others 
of  the  same  class,  is,  properly,  intermediate  between 
that  of  a,  in  arm,  and  that  of  e,  in  end.  —  Examples  : 
And,  hand,  band,  land,  can,  man,  van,  add,  had, 
mad,  last,  vast,  past,  class,  mass,  grass. 

Errors:  (1.)  [Too  nearly,]  "End,  hend,  bend, 
ken,  men,  med,  lest,  vest,  cless,  mess,"  etc.  (2.) 
[Too  nearly,]  "  Mass,  {a,  as  in  marsh,)  last,  vast,  past, 
class,  mass,  grass." 

IV.  The  proper  sound  of  a,  in  words  such  as  bare, 
air,  layer,  is  neither  so  broad  as  that  of  a,  in  and,  nor 
so  close  as  that  of  a,  in  ale,  but  coincides  with  that 

3* 


30  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

of  e  in  there.  —  Examples :  Care,  dare,  pare,  lair,  fair, 
stair,  prayer,  careful,  daring,  parent,  fairly,  staircase, 
prayerful. 

Errors:  (1.)  [Approaching,]  "  Car',  dar',  par',  car'- 
ful,  parrent,  pra'rful."  (2.)  [Approaching,  or  abso- 
lutely,] "  Cayer,  dayer,  payer,  cayerful,  payrent," 
etc. 

E. 

I.  The  vowel  e,  immediately  followed  by  the  let- 
ter r,  and  a  consonant,  has  a  sound  intermediate  be- 
tween that  of  e,  in  the  word  end,  and  that  of  u,  in 
the  word  up,  —  not  so  close  as  the  former,  nor  so 
open  as  the  latter.  —  Examples :  Term,  germ,  termi- 
nate, germinate,  sermon,  servant,  perfect,  person, 
mercy,  personate,  merciful. 

Errors :  "  Turm "  and  "  tairm,"  "  jurm "  and 
"jairm,"  "survant"  and  "  sairvant,"  "purfect"  and 
"pairfect,"  "murcy"  and  "maircy,"  etc. 

II.  In  the  combinations,  -ed  and  -el,  when  they  form 
a  final  syllable,  the  vowel  e  sounds,  properly,  as  i, 
in  it.  —  Examples :  Wicked,  crested,  hinted,  blessed, 
haunted,  founded,  rounded,  sounded,  astounded,  ap- 
pointed ;  gospel,  quarrel,  revel,  vessel,  model,  level, 
jewel,  etc. 

Errors:  [Too  nearly  thus,]  "  Wickedd,  crestedd, 
hintedd,  blessedd." 

III.  In  -et,  -est,  and  -ess,  as  final  syllables,  the 
vowel  e  retains  its  sound,  as  in  the  word  met.  —  Ex- 
amples :  —  Market,  trinket,  hearest,  grandest,  bravest, 
goodness,  meekness,  righteousness,  blessedness. 

Error:  [Changing  the  sound  of  e,  in  met,  into 
that  of  ^,  in  it,]  "  Baskit,  markit,  trinldt,  hearist, 
grandist,  bravist,  goodniss,  meekniss,  righteousniss." 

7. 

I.  The  vowel  i,  occurring  in  monosyllables  ending 
ill  e  mute,  is,  properly,  a  diphthongal  sound,  com- 


ORTHOEPY.  31 

mencing  with  that  of  a,  in  the  word  and,  and  termi- 
nating in  an  approach  to  the  sound  of  e,  in  eve.  — 
Examples:  Isle,  mile,  vile,  ride,  side,  life,  time,  vine, 
bite,  rite. 

Errors:  (1.)  [Commencing  with  the  sound  of  a 
in  arm,  —  giving  a  broad  and  di'awling  sound  to  the 
whole  element,  —  as  if  expressed  thus,]  "  Mtiel,  laef, 
taem,  vaen,"  etc.  —  (2.)  [Commencing,  with  nearly 
the  sound  of  e  in  end,  —  causing  a  flat  and  mincing 
sound,  —  as  if  expressed  thus,]  "  Meel,  leef,  teem, 
veen,"  etc. 

II.  The  vowel  i,  unaccented,  preceding  a  conso- 
nant, sounds,  properly,  as  in  the  word  it.  —  Examples : 
Direct,  diverge,  divest,  divert,  minuteness,  dimen- 
sion, divulge,  diversify,  pliilosopher,  philosophical. 

Errors :  [  Jsounding  as  in  mile,]  "  Di-rect,  di-verge, 
di-vest,  mi-nuteness,"  etc. 

0. 

I.  The  vowel  o,  in  monosyllables  ending  with  silent 
e,  is,  properly,  a  long  sound,  as  in  the  name  of  the 
letter,  itself  —  Examples :  Cone,  lone,  bone,  stone, 
home,  whole,  hope. 

Errors :    [Nearly,]  "  Bon,  ston,  hom,  hoi,  hop." 

II.  O,  in  such  words  2J&  force,  source,  etc.,  has,  pro- 
perly, its  long,  close  sound,  as  in  rose.  —  Exampfles : 
Force,  forge,  ford,  forth,  source,  sword,  course,  hoarse, 
resource,  fourteen. 

Errors :  [Too  nearly,]  "  Fawrce,  sawrce,  sawrd, 
hawi'se,"  etc. 

III.  O,  in  such  words,  as  or,  nor,  etc.,  has,  proper- 
ly, a  sound  intermediate  between  o,  in  07i,  and  a,  in 
aU.  —  Examples :  Or,  nor,  orb,  cord;  lord,  short,  storm, 
com,  north,  torch. 

Errors  :  (1.)  [Too  nearly,]  *'  Oar,  noar,  oarb,  coard, 
loard,"  etc.  [Too  nearly,]  "  Ar,  nar,  arb,  card,  lard," 
etc. 


82  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

IV.  O,  in  such  words  as  not,  nod,  etc.,  has,  pro- 
perly, a  sound  which  is  never  capable  of  being  con- 
founded with  that  of  o,  in  old,  nor  with  that  of  a,  in 
and.  —  Examples :  Not,  lot,  sod,  god,  loss,  toss,  lost, 
tossed,  off,  oft,  soft,  soften,  often. 

Errors :  (1.)  [Too  nearly,]  "  Goad,  loass,  toassed, 
oaff,  soaft,"  etc.  (2.)  [Too  nearly,]  "  Gad,  lass, 
tassed,  aff,  saft,"  etc. 

V.  In  the  termination  -or,  the  vowel  o  takes,  pro- 
perly, the  sound  of  o,  in  done.  —  Examples :  Creator, 
spectator,  speculator,  operator,  factor,  numerator. 

Errors :  Sounding  the  o  of  these  and  similar  words, 
as  in  the  word  or,  and  as  in  the  Latin  words  creator, 
spectator,  etc.,  in  which  a  partial  accent  justly  falls 
on  the  final  syllable,  thus  distinguishing  these  words 
from  the  English  ones  of  the  same  orthography. 

U. 

I.  The  vowel  u,  occurring  in  monosyllables  end- 
ing in  silent  e,  and  in  many  words  in  which  it  occurs 
before  a  single  consonant,  sounds,  properly,  as  the 
whole  pronominal  word  t/ou.  —  Examples :  Cube, 
tube,  lute,  mute,  tune,  flute,  duke,  dupe,  flume,  plume, 
spume,  duty,  dutiful,  student,  stupid,  constitute,  in- 
stitute, constitution,  revolution,  institution. 

Errors: —  (1.)  "  Toob,  loot,  toon,  floot,  dook,  dooty, 
stoodent,  stoopid,  constitoot,  institoot,  constitootion, 
revolootion,  institootion."  —  (2.)  [Nearly  thus,]  "  Ta- 
yoob,  layoot,  tayoon,  flayoot,  frayoot,  rayool,  consti- 
tayoot,"  etc. 

II.  The  vowel  u,  occurring  as  above,  but  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  letter  r,  takes,  properly,  the 
sound  of  00  in  rood,  or  of  oo  in  root.  —  Examples : 
Rule,  rude,  crude,  prune,  brute,  fruit,  true,  rural, 
brutal,  truly,  prudish. 

Errors :  "  Rayool "  and  "  ryule  ",  "  rayood  "  and 
"  ryude  ",  "  crayood  "  and  "  cryude  ",  "  prayoon  "  and 


ORTHOEPY.  33 

"  pryime  ",  "'  brayoot "  and  "  bryiite  ",  "  frayoot "  and 
"  fryuit ",  "  trayoo  "  and  "  tryue  ",  etc. 

Note.  The  diiFerence  between  these  errors,  is 
merely  that  which  characterises  the  former  as  the 
style  of  rural  life,  and  the  latter  as  that  of  the  edu- 
cated class,  in  the  local  style  of  New  England.  But 
the  unfortunate  sanction  of  Webster's,  and  even  of 
Worcester's  dictionary,  tends  to  introduce  it  in  schools 
in  other  parts  of  the  Union,  and  justly  causes  offence 
to  the  ear,  as  a  recognised  peculiarity  of  the  pro- 
nunciation of  our  Eastern  States,  wliich  even  the 
actor  on  the  stage  takes  pains  to  introduce,  as  a 
means  of  giving  hfe-like  reahty  to  his  delineations 
of  local  character. 

The  Diphthongs  01  and  OY. 

Rule.  The  sound  of  the  diphthongs  oi  and  oy, 
commences  properly  with  the  sound  of  a  in  o?\  — 
Examples :  Oil,  boil,  toil,  coil,  boy,  joy,  toy,  hoy,  re- 
coil, turmoil,  rejoice,  avoid,  joyful. 

Error:  [The  sound  commencing  with  that  of  o 
in  old^  "  Oil,  boil,  toil,  coil,  boy,  joy,  recoil,  rejoice, 
avoid." 

OJJand  OW. 

Rule.  The  diphthongs  ou,  in  such  words  as  ou7% 
and  aiv,  in  such  words  as  dow7t,  commence,  properly, 
to  the  ear,  with  the  sound  of  o  in  such  words  as  do7ie, 
come,  etc.  —  Examples  :  Our,  bound,  found,  ground, 
count,  account,  recount,  how,  now,  down,  gown,  town, 
scowl. 

Errors :  (1.)  J  Commencing  with  nearly  the  sound 
of  a  in  arm,]  "  Aur,  baund,  faund,  haoo,  naoo,  daoon," 
etc.  (2.)  ^[Commencing  with  a  sound  like  that  of  e 
in  end,]  "  Eur,  beund;  feund,  heu,  neu,  deun,  keunt, 
ackeunt,  skeul." 


84  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 


Tfie  Letter  R. 


Rules.  I.  The  letter  r,  when  it  precedes  a  vowel, 
has  a  clear,  firm,  distinct,  but  brief  and  compacted 
sound,  called,  by  Walker,  the  rough  r.  —  Examples : 
Rap,  rack,  ray,  rave,  reed,  rice,  rod,  run,  rural,  ruin, 
library,  roaring,  rearing,  brace,  dread,  fresh,  grand, 
drum,  proud,  tread. 

Errors :  (1.)  [Softening,  mufihng,  or  obscuring  the 
sound,  by  feebleness  or  slackness  of  articulation.  It 
is  impossible,  by  any  combination  of  letters,  to  indi- 
cate this  sound.  Its  effect  on  the  ear,  is,  to  give  the 
impression  of  childish  or  morbid  weakness  of  organ 
in  the  speaker.]  (2.)  [Rolling,  or  prolonging  and 
unduly  roughening,  the  sound  of  this  element,  in  the 
style  of  foreign  languages,  or  of  theatrical  utterance. 
Sometimes  represented  thus,]  "  Rrap,  rrack,  rray, 
rrave,  derread,  derrum,  terread." 

Unaccented  Syllables. 

Rule.  In  unaccented  syllables,  the  sounds  of  let- 
ters should  neither  be  skipped,  nor  sunk  into  ob- 
scurity, nor  protruded. 

Note.  Syllables  which  orthoepists,  in  some  in- 
stances, mention  as  being  "  obscure  ",  are,  properly, 
only  shortened  in  duration,  and  diminished  in  force, 
but  never  slurred  so  as  to  change  the  character  of 
the  predominating  letter,  or  substitute  one  for  an- 
other. 

Examples :  Initial  SyUahles,  —  Abate,  abide,  adore, 
before,  belate,  compose,  condemn,  collect,  correct, 
corrupt,  perform,  perfume,  perforce,  propel,  produce, 
promote,  secure,  seclude. 

Errors :  "  Ubbate  "  and  "  aybate  ",  "  ubbide  "  and 
"  aybide  ",  "  buffore  "  and  "  beefore  ",  "  cumpose  " 
and  "  com-pose  ",  "  d'ny  "  and  "  deeny  ",  "  currect " 


ORTHOEPY.  3d 

and  "cor-rect",  "pufform"  and  "per-form",  "  prii- 
pel "  and  "  pro-pel ",  "  s'cure  "  and  "  seecure." 

Examples:  Middle  and  Penultimate  Syllables, — 
Every,  several,  murderer,  utterance,  traveller,  delib- 
erate, desperate,  history,  rhetoric,  memory,  mem- 
orable, melancholy,  desolate,  articulate,  accuracy,  re- 
gular, masculine,  melody,  custody,  eloquence,  obso- 
lete, obstinate,  society,  sobriety,  anxiety,  variety, 
alarming,  disarming,  returning,  discerning,  worldUng, 
reverberate. 

Errors :  "  Ev'ry,  sev'ral,  murd'rer,  travller,  des- 
p'rate,  hist'ry,  mem'ry,  melanch'ly,  reg'lar,  meliidy, 
sociuty,  ala'ming,  woldling  ",  etc. 

Examples :  Final  Syllahles,  —  Travel,  gravel,  ves- 
sel, level,  novel,  model,  musical,  comical,  critical, 
capital,  metal,  ecclesiastical,  fatal,  fantastical,  princi- 
pal, certain,  fountain,  mountain,  horizon,  motion,  no- 
tion, diapason,  moment,  dependent,  confidence,  gov- 
ernment, equipment,  providence,  parliament,  ascend- 
ant, perseverance,  defiance,  motto,  fellow,  window, 
meadow,  billow,  waking,  morning,  running,  singing, 
walking,  warrior,  daystar,  before,  flower,  reindeer, 
alarm,  return,  depart,  departure,  murmur,  character, 
nature,  feature,  creature,  measure,  pleasure,  invinci- 
ble, incredible,  perceptible,  special,  judicial,  artificial, 
invasion,  confusion,  adhesion,  division,  dimension, 
profession,  option,  addition,  Indian,  tedious,  odious, 
fastidious,  chasm,  schism,  witticism,  patriotism,  phan- 
tasm. 

Errors :  "  TraVl,  graVl,  vess'l,  music'l,  comic'l, 
critic'l,  princip'l,  fat'l,  cert'n,  fount'n,  mount'n,  horiz'n, 
mosh'n,  nosh'n,  dependunt,  confidunce,  gover'munt, 
feller,  winder,  meader,  mornin',  nmnin',  singin', 
daysta',  ala'm,  depa't,  depatsha,  cha'ata,  nacha, 
feacha,  creddubble,  speciul,  invazh'n,  divizh'n,  In- 
jun, tejus,  ojus,  chasum,  patriotisum." 


36  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 


The  luord  Mij. 


Rule.  The  y  of  the  word  my,  in  familiar  and 
unemphatic  phrases,  is,  properly,  shortened  into  the 
sound  of  i  and  y,  in  the  word  city.  This  modification, 
however,  should  never  extend  so  far  as  to  make  the 
sound  of  the  letter  y,  in  this  word,  identical  with 
that  of  e,  in  the  word  me.  The  former  style  is  ap- 
propriate, as  contrasted  with  emphatic,  full,  formal, 
or  solemn  expression,  in  which  the  y  is  properly  given 
with  the  long  name  sound  of  the  vowel  ?",  as  in  the 
word  mile.  The  latter  style  is  merely  an  accident 
of  foreign  usage,  which  has  gained  a  local  currency 
in  some  parts  of  our  own  country. 

The  word  The. 

Hide.  The  letter  e,  in  the  definite  article,  changes 
its  sound,  in  accommodation  to  easy  utterance,  ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  the  sound  which  imme- 
diately follows  it,  in  the  body  of  any  phrase.  Before 
a  word  beginning  v/ith  a  vowel,  it  has,  properly,  a 
sound  like  that  of  e,  m.  the  word  emit :  before  a  con- 
sonant, its  proper  sound  is  that  of  e,  in  the  word 
term.  —  Examples :  The  arm,  the  elk,  the  isle,  the 
oak,  the  upland,  the  ofl^set,  the  effect,  the  arrow,  the 
owl,  the  ape ;  —  the  boy,  the  man,  the  hand,  the 
head,  the  hill,  the  house,  the  town,  the  soldier,  the 
book,  the  place,  the  parent,  the  shepherd,  the  clouds, 
the  way,  the  war,  the  west,  the  wish,  the  youth,  the 
year,  the  yam. 

Exceptions  :  (1.)  When  the  definite  article  occurs 
before  a  word  commencing  with  the  letter  e,  sound- 
ing as  in  eve,  or  the  letter  i,  sounding  as  in  it,  the  e, 
of  the  word  the,  has,  properly,  the  same  sound  as 
before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant.  —  Ex- 
amples :  The  ear,  the  eve,  the  east,  the  eel,  the  inn, 
the  interior,  the  inn-keeper,  the  idiot,  the  interval. 


ORTHOEPY.  37 

(2.)  Wlieii  the  occurs  before  a  word,  commencing 
with  a  vowel  sounding  as  u,  in  the  word  up,  or  with 
any  one  approaching  to  that  sound,  the  e  of  the,  re- 
verts to  the  sound,  of  e  in  emit.  —  Examples :  Tiic 
utterance,  the  utmost,  the  upper,  the  upshot,  the 
unworthy,  the  unthankful ;  —  the  ermine,  the  earth, 
the  earnings. 

(3.)  When  the  occurs  before  a  word  commencing 
with  the  sound  of  ii,  in  the  word  use,  the  e  of  tJie, 
takes  the  same  sound  as  before  a  consonant.  Exam- 
ples: The  universe,  the  union,  the  university,  the 
unicorn,  the  eulogy,  the  European,  the  euphony,  the 
unanimity. 

Words  the  pronunciation  of  ivhich  is  properly  depend- 
ent on  individual  taste  and  preference. 

Kind,  guide,  guard,  sky,  etc. — A  very  delicate, 
brief,  and  slight  sound,  resembling  that  of  the  letter 
y,  in  the  word  yet,  is  sanctioned  by  the  best  authority, 
as  following  the  letters  k  and  g,  in  these  words. 
American  usage  inclines,  in  some  instances  of  this 
class  of  words,  to  the  prevalent  style  of  Scotland, 
which  omits  the  slight  sound  referred  to,  and,  in 
others,  to  an  exaggerated  protrusion  of  that  sound. 

Grandeur,  odious,  tedious,  Indian,  educate,  gradual, 
verdure,  etc.  Nature,  feature,  creature,  curvature,  sig- 
nature, fortune,  fortunate,  etc.  —  In  these  classes  of 
words,  a  slight  softening  of  the  sounds  of  d  and  t, 
which  makes  them  approach,  although  not  quite 
reach,  the  articulation  of  the  consonantal  combina- 
tions dzh  and  tsh,  is  sanctioned  by  the  best  authority. 
In  these,  as  in  the  instances  mentioned  above,  the 
error  of  taste  hes  m  carrying  the  modified  sound  to 
excess,  which  is  a  prominent  trait  in  the  enunciation 
of  the  public  speakers  of  Ireland.  American  usage, 
wherever  the  standard  of  Walker  is  adopted,  inclines 
to  this  style;  and,  where  Walker  is  rejected,  it  adopts 
4 


S|$  EXERISES    ON    WORDS. 

the  comparatively  hard  and  Hteral  mode  of  articu- 
lation prevalent  in  Scotland,  which  preserves  the 
sounds  of  d  and  t  unmodified. 

Pronunciation,  as  modified  hy  Rhyme. 

The  word  wind,  and  a  few  others,  are  sometimes, 
in  poetic  usage,  properly,  allowed,  for  the  sake  of 
rhyme,  an  older  style  of  pronunciation  than  is  now 
current.  This  poetic  license  is  an  accorded  privilege 
of  orthoepy,  with  which  the  reader  is  not  at  liberty 
to  dispense  ;  as  the  infringement  would  rob  the  poet 
of  his  right.  The  courtesy  due  to  poets,  however,  is 
not  to  be  stretched  to  desperate  extremes,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  words  duly,  truly,  etc.,  when  introduced 
by  comparatively  modern  writers,  in  affected  antique 
style,  and  apparently  demanding,  for  the  y  in  these 
words,  the  sound  of  i,  in  the  word  lie.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  appropriate  reading  of  poets  of  the  earliest 
period  of  our  literature,  requires  that  the  antique 
and  obsolete  style  be  preserved  throughout,  as  essen- 
tial alike  to  rhythm  and  to  rhyme.  A  modern  pro- 
nunciation would,  in  such  reading,  destroy  the  music 
of  many  of  the  most  purely  poetic  passages  of  our 
literature. 


The  pronunciation  op  Greek  and  Latin  words. 

General  Rules.  (I.)  Greek  and  Latin  proper 
names,  and  Greek  and  Latin  words  generally,  when 
occurring  singly,  in  the  reading  of  English  sentences, 
may  be  pronounced  with  the  characteristic  sounds 
of  letters  given  as  in  English  words  containing  simi- 
lar syllabic  combinations. —  Examples:  Achaia,  Asia, 
Mesopotamia,  Africanus,  Coriolanus,  Corioli,  Veil 
datum,  stratum,  via,  bronchitis,  etc. 

Exception  —  Ch,  in  Greek  and  Latin  words,  have 


ORTHOEPY.  39 

uniformly  the  sound  of  ch  in  chasm.  —  Examples : 
Charta,  Archipelago,  Archimedes. 

II.  In  the  reading  of  Latin  quotations,  extending  to 
clauses  and  sentences,  the  vowels  a  and  i  occurring  in 
Latin  words,  in  such  positions  as,  in  English  words, 
would  require  them  to  sound  as  in  ale  and  isle,  may,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  reader  or  the  teacher,  be  enun- 
ciated with  these  sounds,  or  with  those  of  a,  in  arm, 
and  of  z,  in  magazine ;  both  modes  of  pronunciation 
being  sanctioned,  or  permitted,  in  our  colleges. 

Note. —  The  former  of  these  styles,  although  sanc- 
tioned by  the  authority  of  Oxford,  is,  to  all  the 
nations  of  Europe,  but  England,  an  unnatural  and 
revolting  barbarism,  entirely  subversive  of  the  ap- 
propriate music  of  utterance  in  the  ancient  languages. 
Our  New-England  colleges  are,  at  length,  beginning 
to  recede  so  far  from  this  objectionable  style  as  to 
permit  the  continental  forms  of  orthoepy,  in  the 
reading  of  Greek  and  Latin.  In  our  Middle  States, 
the  purity  of  the  continental  style  is  sometimes 
marred  by  an  unwarrantable  license,  which  introdu- 
ces the  Oxford  sound  of  z,  in  the  same  word,  perhaps, 
with  the  continental  broad  a.  The  word  RomAini, 
transmuted  by  this  system  of  compromise,  becomes 
neither  the  venerable  "  Romanee"  of  antiquity,  nor 
the  Anglicised,  self-consistent "  Romani,"  but  a  species 
of  "modern  antique"  in  utterance, — "  Romani." 


The  Authority  of  Walker,  as  an  Orthoepist. 

The  fact,  that  the  owners  of  the  copyright  of 
Walker's  dictionary,  found  it  necessary,  some  years 
ago,  to  employ  Mr.  Smart  of  London,  an  eminent 
instructor  and  elocutionist,  to  revise  the  work,  be- 
cause the  style  of  pronunciation  indicated  by  its 
author,  had,  in  some  classes  of  words,  become  obso- 


40  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

lete,  proves  the  falsity  of  the  opinion  that  American 
usage  ought  to  be  kept  uniformly  and  rigorously  to 
Walker's  standard.  It  should  never  be  forgotten  by 
teachers,  however,  that  the  interpretation  of  this  fact 
does  not  warrant  the  entire  rejection  of  Walker's 
authority,  in  the  headlong  and  rash  manner  which  is 
sometimes  exemplified,  and  which  scouts  the  de- 
cisions of  Walker  as,  in  any  case,  binding,  or  even 
well  founded.  Walker's  authority  was  respectfully 
acknowledged  by  the  most  learned  and  the  most  ac- 
complished men  of  his  day,  as  decisive  on  all  points, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  changes  which 
he  wished  to  introduce,  and  in  which  he  was  not  fol- 
lowed by  the  sanction  of  custom.  —  At  the  distance 
of  more  than  half  a  century  from  the  period  of 
Walker's  ascendency,  and  in  our  capacity  as  a  distinct 
and  independent  nation,  we  may  justly  be  expected 
to  claim  a  yet  wider  hberty  of  opinion,  taste,  and 
practice,  than  the  people  of  England;  and,  while 
Walker's  dictionary  still  holds  a  respectable  place  in 
our  regard,  we  may  well  be  allowed  to  modernise 
our  current  style  of  pronunciation,  by  the  aids  of 
Smart  and  Reid,  and  those,  also,  of  our  own  country- 
men, Dr.  Worcester  and  Professor  Henry  Reed,  — 
and,  in  all  cases  in  which  American  usage  is  univer- 
sal, and  not  merely  local,  to  follow  our  own  national 
mode,  in  preference  to  any  other. 

The  two  British  authors,  mentioned  above,  have 
furnished  valuable  aids  to  instruction  in  their  respec- 
tive dictionaries.  That  of  Smart  gives  a  faithful 
report  of  the  usage  of  cultivated  speakers,  at  the 
present  day,  in  the  city  of  London :  Reid's  presents 
a  more  general  style,  —  that  which  may  be  said  to 
characterise  the  pronunciation  of  educated  persons, 
throughout  the  British  isles,  who  have  freed  their 
manner  from  local  peculiarities.  Reid's  dictionary'", 
accordingly,  is  found  in  extensive  use  in  the  normal 
schools  and  higher  seminaries  of  Great  Britain.    The 


ORTHOEPY. 


41 


late  Professor  Henry  Reed,  of  Philadelphia,  rendered 
an  invaluable  service  to  the  interests  of  education, 
by  his  careful  re-editing  of  that  work,  not  less  than 
by  his  constant  exertions,  in  other  forms,  to  cherish, 
among  the  students  of  our  higher  seminaries  of 
learning,  a  taste  for  the  study  of  English  literature 


Words  peculiarly  liable  to  wrong  Accent,  in 
negligent  usage. 

The  principle  by  which  the  teacher  should  be 
guided  in  determining  the  rule  of  accent,  in  the  fol- 
lowing and  similar  instances,  is  the  preponderance  of 
authority.  The  conflicting  decisions  of  different  or- 
thoepists,  sometimes,  unfortunately,  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  adoption  of  any  of  the  proposed 
modes,  in  a  given  case,  is  a  matter  of  indifference. 
But  tliis  should  be  the  result  only  when  authorities 
are  exactly  or  nearly  balanced.  In  whatever  case 
one  or  two  names  only  are  adduced  in  favor  of  a 
given  style,  while  all  others  stand  opposed  to  it,  the 
minority, — no  matter  how  eminent, —  are  necessarily, 
for  the  moment,  in  the  wrong;  since  in  this,  as  in  all 
other  points  concerning  language,  the  question  is 
one  of  usage  and  fact, — not  of  theory  or  opinion. 


Ab'attis  ^ 

abdo'men 

address' 

alco've 

alter'nate 

ambusca'de 

antip'odes 

a'rea 

bombast' 

bureau' 

cap'illary 

caravan' 

cartel' 

cel'ibacy 

coadju'tor 

com'bative 

contem'plate 

confidant' 

con'sistory 

compen'sate 

deraon'strate 

desic'cate 

dioe'esan 

consum'mate 

dis'crepant 

elegi'ac 

empyre'an 

dis'crepance 

es'sayist 

governan'te 

indis'putable 

epicure'an 

irrefragable 

ob'ligatory 

or'deal 

inqui'ry 

panegyr'ic 

panthe'on 

pap'illary 

or'thoepy 

quanda'ry 

recep'tacle 

rcfec'tory 

proceeds' 

reni'tency 

rep'ertory 

per'emptory 

rem'ediless 

no'menclature    leg'islature. 

*  The  true  accent,  only,  is  marked  in  the  above  columns. 
4# 


42 


EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 


Words  on  the  pronunciation  of  which  the 
weight  of  authority  is  nearly  balanced,  and 
which,  therefore,  are  amenable  to  the  de- 
cision of  individual  judgment  and  taste,  as 
to  their  appropriate  style. 

Note.  —  Whatever  shade  of  preference,  in  any  in- 
stance, may  be  justly  claimed,  is  intimated  by  the 
mode  of  notation  on  the  left-hand  column. 


Bal'cony 

balco'ny 

oblique  {-eeh) 

oblique  (-ike) 

chivalry  (sA-) 

chivalry  (tsh-) 

ophtialmic  (o/)-)ophthalmic  (0^-) 

conten'ts 

con'tents 

or'chestra 

orches  tra 

courteous  (cur- 

)  courteous  {cor- 

)  pageant 

pageant 

cynosure 

cynosure 

pdlfrey 

palfrey 

deco'rous 

dec'orous 

panegyric  {-jer 

-)panegyric  (jir-) 

design  {ss) 

design  (2) 

pasty 

pasty 

dynasty 

dynasty 

patent 

patent 

dyspep'sy 
enverope 

dys'pepsy 
ang'velope 

pedal 
petal 

pedal 
petal 

e'querry 

equer'ry 

phalanx 

phalanx 

evangelical 

evangelical 

pharmaceutic 

pharmaceutic 

ex'cavate 

exca'vate 

i-ku-] 

1                   i-seu-) 

facade 

fagad 

platina  {-ie-) 

platina  (-tl-) 

feb'rile 

fe'brile 

pother  (-M-) 

pother  {-oth-) 

gain'say 

gainsay' 

privacy 

privacy 

gla'cis 

glaceess' 

prom'ulgator 

promu  ga'tor 

gladia'tor 

glad'iator 

pronunciation 

pronunciation 

halcyon  (sheun)  halcyon  (seun) 

i-sh-] 

1                     i-s-) 

hcgira  (he-) 

hegira  (hedj-) 

protest'  [nounj 

pro'test  and 

hemis'tich 

hem'istich 

prot'est 

heresiarch(-2:Ae- 

)  heresiarch  {-ze- 

)  prow 

pro 

hiccough  {-up) 

hiccough  (-0^) 

pu'issance 

puis'sanco 

hospital  Cos-) 

hospital  (hos-) 

piimicc 

pumice 

humble  (\im-) 

humble  {hum-) 

quoth  (-U-) 

quoth  (-0-) 

infantile  (-^7) 

infantile  {-lie) 

route  {-00-) 

route  {-ow-) 

inimi'cal 

inim'Ical 

satire  (sdtei-) 

sater  and  satire 

jackall' 

jack'all 

satyr  {sdter) 

satyr  (sater) 

liistring 

lustring 

Saturn 

Saturn 

Messieurs 

Messieurs 

schismat'ic 

schis'matic 

{-shurz] 

1                 (-yerz) 

schedule   (sk-) 

schedule  (sed-) 

minute  {-it) 

minute  {-ute) 

and  (shed-) 

mob'ile 

mo'bilo 

seneschal  {-sk-) 

seneschal  (-sh-) 

no'menclaturo 

nomencla'turo 

sher'bet 

sherbet' 

ORTnOEPY. 


43 


shire  (i-) 
sirup  {s^r-) 
solder 
southward 
suggest  (sag-) 
tenure 
tdtrarch 
threepence 

[thrip- 
tiercc  {eer-) 
tripod 
twopence 


shire  (-ee-) 
sirup  [seer-) 
sawder 
suthard 
suggest  [sud-] 
tenure 
tetrarch 
threepence 

[threep') 
tierce  {&r-) 
tripod 
tuppence 


u'tensil 

venison  [venizn) 

vertigo  (-ee-) 

vicinal 

wainscoat 

waistcoat 

warrior 

[war-yur) 
wound  (-00-) 
yeast  [yest) 
yea  [yay) 
zenith 


nten'sil 

venison  [venzn) 

vertigo  (-^-) 

vicinal 

wenscot 

wescot 

warrior 

[imr-re-or) 
wound  {-0W-) 
yeast  (yest) 
yea  (ye) 
zenith 


EXERCISE  11. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Form  of  Exercise.  —  A  convenient  mode  of 
prescribing  a  word-exercise  in  which  the  practice 
of  orthography  is  intended  to  form  a  prominent 
part,  may  be  found  in  the  following  plan.  The 
teacher  directs  the  class  to  prepare  themselves,  in 
proper  season,  so  as  to  be  ready,  at  the  time  as- 
signed for  the  '  class-exercise,  to  spell,  by  writing 
on  their  slates,  on  the  blackboard,  or  in  a  con- 
venient blank  book,  whatever  words  he  may 
choose  to  select  from  a  paragraph  or  page,  pre- 
scribed from  the  daily  reading-lesson  of  the  class, 
or  from  any  other  convenient  source.  The  pupil's 
preparation  extends,  of  course,  over  the  whole 
portion  assigned,  for  all  of  which  he  is  responsible. 
But  a  selection  of  twenty  words  will  usually  be 
found  to  occupy  advantageously  all  the  time 
which  can  be  properly  devoted,  in  school  hours, 
to  a  class-lesson  in  orthography,  especially  when 
it  forms  but  a  part  of  an  exercise  on  words. 

The  most  convenient  mode  of  conducting  the 
performance  of  such  exercises  in  class-form,  is  the 
following.  The  teacher,  having  previously  ex- 
amined the  page  or  paragraph  from  which  the 
lesson  in  orthography  is  prescribed,  and  having 
marked,  with  a  pencil-dot,  such  words  as  he 
deems  most  important  for  his  purpose,  pronoun- 

(44) 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  45 

ces  the  first  of  the  words  thus  selected,  and  has 
it  written  by  the  class,  as  mentioned  above.  The 
remaining  words  of  the  lesson  are  dictated  and 
written  as  the  first. 

Suggestions.  —  In  performing  tne  exercise,  the 
youngest  classes  may  do  their  work  on  the  black- 
board; the  intermediate,  on  their  slates;  and  the 
advanced,  in  their  manuscript  books. 

When  slates  are  used  in  writing  the  lesson,  a  con- 
venient way  of  ascertaining  the  degree  of  correct- 
ness attained  in  every  exercise,  is  this.  On  finishing 
the  whole  number  of  words  dictated  as  a  lesson,  the 
pupils  interchange  slates;  and,  while  the  teacher 
gives  orally,  or  writes  on  the  blackboard,  the  true 
spelling  of  every  word,  every  pupil  marks,  by  un- 
derlining, any  word  which  he  observes  incorrectly 
spelled  on  the  slate  which,  for  the  moment,  he  has 
in  hand,  and,  when  called  by  the  teacher,  reports, 
orally,  the  number  of  errors  so  marked.  The  slates 
are  then  returned  to  their  respective  owners,  for  cor- 
rection; and  the  corrected  spelling-lesson  is  trans- 
feiTed  to  a  manuscript  book ;  the  underlining  being 
retained,  to  indicate  the  words  which  were  corrected 
on  the  slate.  The  words  so  marked  may  be  reviewed, 
at  convenient  times,  as  a  special  class-exercise ;  the 
teacher  selecting  for  inscription  on  the  blackboard, 
by  the  pupils,  in  turn,  the  words  which  he  finds,  by 
referring  to  the  manuscript  books,  to  have  been 
originally  misspelled  by  them  individually. 

In  classes  sufiiciently  advanced  for  the  use  of 
manuscript  books  in  the  fijst  form  of  a  written  exer- 
cise in  spelling,  the  writing  may,  for  convenience,  be 
done  in  pencil,  and  the  errors  indicated  by  the  cor- 
rector making  merely  a  shght  mark,  dot,  line,  or 
cross,  opposite  to  each  error,  and  reporting  the  num- 
ber of  errors  orally,  as  before.  The  owner  of  the 
book,  when  it  is  returned  to  him,  makes  the  requisite 


46  EXEECISES    ON    WORDS. 

correction,  but  leaves  the  mark  indicating  error  un- 
erased, and  hands  to  the  teacher,  or  writes  on  the 
blackboard,  a  weekly  list  of  the  errors  made  by  the 
writer,  together  with  the  requisite  correction.  Pupils 
are  thus  brought  to  give  special  attention  to  the 
errors  to  which  they  individually  inchne ;  and  their 
progress  is  indicated,  from  week  to  week,  by  the  con- 
tinually diminishing  number  of  errors  reported  by 
the  recording  book.  The  teacher  is  also  thus  made 
aware  of  the  previous  standing  of  pupils  recently 
admitted  as  members  of  a  class. 

As  a  means  of  inducing  attention,  and  as  a  pleas- 
ing incitement  to  the  minds  of  very  young  pupils, 
the  teacher  may  write  or  print  the  words  of  the 
lesson,  for  them,  on  the  blackboard,  at  their  dictation ; 
and,  as  a  further  variation  of  mental  exercise,  he 
may  occasionally  write  a  word,  and  ask  the  class 
whether  it  is  rightly  spelled;  having  given  due 
warning  that,  to  secure  close  attention  and  accurate 
observation,  the  words  may  be,  sometimes,  intention- 
ally spelled  wrong,  for  the  purpose  of  caUing  forth  a 
correction. 

In  the  practice  of  orthography,  as  part  of  a  word- 
exercise,  the  written  form  of  spelling  is  adopted  ex- 
clusively, as  oral  spelling  is  presumed  to  have  already 
been  sufficiently  practised  in  the  primer  and  spelling- 
book  exercises,  and  to  have  been  followed,  also,  by 
an  introductory  course  of  lessons  in  oral  spelling 
without  syllabication,  so  as  to  prepare  the  young 
learner,  when  spelhng  for  strictly  orthographical 
purposes,  to  retain  in  his  memory  all  the  letters 
which  constitute  a  word,  without  the  aid  of  the 
stepping-stones  furnished  by  enunciating  and  re- 
capitulating its  syllables. 

An  early  and  long-continued  training  in  written 
spelling,  seems  indispensable,  in  most  cases,  to  the 
formation  of  strictly  exact  habits  of  ocular  observa- 
tion.   For,  as  is  well  known  to  experienced  teachers, 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  47 

the  utmost  accuracy  of  habit  in  oral  spelling,  is  no 
security  for  corresponding  exactness  in  written  spell- 
ing. Individuals  are  sometimes  found,  who  have 
stood  at  the  head  of  an  oral  spelUng-class  in  school, 
for  successive  terms,  who,  when  brought  to  the  test 
of  the  written  exercise,  fail  in  every  line,  on  one  or 
more  words.  For  this  reason,  exercises  in  spelling 
by  the  use  of  letter-blocks  and  cards,  are  of  the 
greatest  value,  in  training  young  children:  they 
habituate  the  pupil  to  something  like  the  accuracy 
of  the  compositor  in  the  printing  office ;  and  they 
work  their  effect  by  the  same  discipline, — that  of 
not  only  seeing  and  recognising,  but  also  handling 
every  letter  in  a  word.  To  pupils  in  advanced 
classes  it  is  a  valuable  opportunity  for  improvement 
to  be  permitted  to  aid  the  teacher  in  conducting  the 
lessons  of  young  classes,  and,  sometimes,  to  take 
the  place  of  temporary  instructor  in  their  own.  Such 
employment  calls  for  and  secures  a  watchful  atten- 
tion to  accuracy,  by  showing,  in  the  most  impressive 
manner,  the  necessity  of  possessing  it ;  and,  as  much 
the  greater  number  of  teachers  must,  even  at  the 
present  day,  enter  on  their  work  without  the  advan- 
tage of  professional  training,  it  would  be  an  invalua- 
ble aid  to  education,  in  this  department,  were  every 
reliable  member  of  our  public  schools  required  to 
occupy  a  part  of  every  day  of  the  last  year  of  his 
or  her  attendance  at  school,  as  a  pupil,  in  practical, 
preparatory  training  for  teaching,  in  such  forms  as 
the  one  now  suggested. 

Competent  examiners,  if  called  on  to  testify  with 
regard  to  the  accuracy  of  general  habit  among  us,  in 
the  matter  of  spelling,  could  bring  up  statements 
which,  when  kept  within  the  bounds  of  literal  truth, 
could  hardly  be  credited  by  those  whose  opportuni- 
ties of  observing  are  more  restricted.  The  majority 
of  even  our  New-England  teachers,  could  ill  stand  a 
strict  scrutiny  in  this  matter;  —  all  owing  to  the 


48  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

simple  fact,  that,  although  well  drilled,  perhaps,  in 
oral  spelling,  in  childhood,  they  were  not  trained  to 
the  exercise  of  written  spelling,  at  any  stage  of  their 
school  discipline.  —  The  eye  may  not  say,  "  I  am  not 
of  the  body ; "  but  it  may  well  be  allowed  to  say,  I 
am  not  the  ear.  The  discipline  of  the  musician  will 
not  make  a  painter. 

The  remarks  made  under  the  head  of  orthoepy, 
concerning  the  importance  of  perfect  accuracy,  on 
the  part  of  students  and  teachers,  apply,  with  equal 
force,  to  the  demand  for  this  indispensable  qualifica- 
tion, in  the  case  of  the  student  or  teacher  of  ortho- 
graphy. No  word  of  the  English  language,  —  co- 
pious as  the  language  is, — must  be  unknown  to  him, 
as  regards  its  constituent  letters.  Months  of  appli- 
cation may  be  needed,  even  by  the  educated  adult, 
to  render  him  critically  exact  in  this  branch  of  the 
requisite  knowledge  of  his  daily  business.  A  single 
error  in  orthography,  casts  a  cloud  of  doubt  over  even 
the  most  liberal  mind,  as  to  the  competency  of  a 
candidate  for  the  office  of  teacher,  who  thus  obvi- 
ously fails  in  the  ability  to  set  a  correct  example  or 
detect  an  error.  Nothing  short  of  a  thorough  self- 
discipline  in  orthography,  throughout  the  dictionary 
of  the  language,  should  satisfy  a  candidate  for  the 
occupation  of  teaching. 

Worcester's  Comprehensive  and  Critical  Dictiona- 
ries will  furnish  the  student  with  a  rehable  standard 
for  actual  and  well-sanctioned  usage  in  the  ortho- 
graphy of  our  language  at  the  present  day.  The 
Harpers'  octavo  edition  of  Webster's  dictionary,  also, 
among  the  many  other  excellent  features  which 
recommend  that  work  to  teachers,  for  their  special 
uses,  presents,  clearly  and  compactly,  the  few  points 
in  which  that  eminent  lexicogTapher  stands  alone,  in 
certain  peculiarities,  as  well  as  those  in  which  he  is 
sustained  by  the  sanction  of  the  best  dictionary- 
compilers  of  England.  —  An   erroneous  impression 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  49 

prevails,  with  some  teachers,  that,  on  account  of  the 
great  general  excellencies  of  Webster's  dictionary, 
it  is  a  duty  to  adopt  it  unreservedly,  and  to  follow  it, 
as  a  standard,  in  all  its  peculiarities.  This  would 
be  carrying  our  respect  for  the  venerable  author  to  a 
species  of  man-worship,  which  the  native  independ- 
ence of  our  language  has  hitherto  forbidden  it  from 
rendering  to  the  most  profoundly  learned  of  its  lexi- 
cographers. Neither  Johnson,  who  swayed  the  in- 
tellectual and  moral  world  of  his  day,  nor  Walker, 
to  whom  Sheridan  and  Burke  ascribed  a  consum- 
mate mastery  of  "  the  harmonies  and  elegancies  "  of 
the  English  language,  was  permitted  to  prescribe  a 
universal  standard  of  usage  in  orthography  or  in 
pronunciation.  Most  of  the  peculiarities  of  these  emi- 
nent authorities,  were  shunned, — not  copied;  and  to 
accord  to  Webster  a  submissive  adoption  ofhis,  would 
be  an  act  of  servility,  wliich  neither  the  characteris- 
tic freedom  of  our  language,  nor  the  independent 
spirit  of  our  people,  ought  to  be  expected  to  yield. 


Words  op  variable  Orthography. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.  —  The  words  presented 
in  the  following  columns,  are  not  found  uniform  in 
the  orthography,  even^of  eminent  authors,  either  Bri- 
tish or  American.  In  the  larger  number  of  instan- 
ces, however,  writers  distinguished  for  critical  accu- 
racy of  style,  manifest  a  preference  for  one  mode  of 
spelling;  and  in  those  cases  in  which  there  is  an 
obvious  preponderance  of  such  authority,  it  is  pro- 
perly regarded  as  the  law  of  usage.  Words  of  tliis 
class,  in  the  hst  subjoined,  are  given  in  that  form 
only  wliich  has  this  sanction :  words  in  regard  to 
which  the  weight  of  authority  is  divided,  and  nearly 
balanced,  are  presented  in  double  form ;  and,  what- 
5 


50 


EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 


ever  degree  of  preference  may  be  justly  claimed,  is 
indicated  in  the  orthography  of  that  form  of  the  given 
word  which  occurs  first,  in  order. 

While  offering  this  aid  to  the  regularity  of  in- 
struction, the  author  will  not,  he  hopes,  be  regarded 
as  dictating  to  his  fellow  teachers.  His  aim  is  mere- 
ly to  facilitate  uniformity  of  practice,  in  schools  and 
classes,  in  this  important  branch  of  practical  educa- 
tion ;  and  it  would  greatly  assist  the  attainment  of 
the  end  now  in  view,  if  every  teacher  would  make, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  own  school,  a  corresponding 
hst  of  words  of  variable  orthography  selected  accord- 
ing to  his  own  critical  judgment,  and  have  his  pupils 
daily  transcribe  from  it,  at  his  dictation,  or  from  his 
inscription  on  the  blackboard,  a  certain  number  of 
words,  on  a  card,  or  in  a  book,  kept  always  at  hand, 
as  a  standard  of  reference.  —  Students  of  advanced 
standing  will  also  be  greatly  benefited  by  preparing 
such  a  list  for  themselves,  as  a  companion  or  sup- 
plement to  the  dictionary. 


Abattis  ) 
abatis    ) 
asthetic  ) 
aesthetic  J 
apostasy 
artisan  I 
artizan  ) 
bachelor 
banian  ) 
banyan  ) 
behoove  ) 
behove    J 
bellwether  ) 


belwether 
byzantine 
buzz 

camlet  ) 
camblet  ) 
catchup  if 
catsup  J 
chestnut 
scion  ) 
cion     J 


abridgment 

abridgement 

aide-de-camp 

aid-de-camp 

ascendency 

autocracy 

baluster  / 

banister  J 

basin 

bellman  ) 

belman  J 

bequeath   } 
bequeathe  ) 
brier  ) 
briar  ) 
camphor 
carabine  ) 
carbine   J 
causeway 
chillncss  " 
chilness 
cipher 


advertise 

alchemist 

anapest 

apall 

athenaeum  ) 

atheneum  S 

arquebuse  1 

arquebus    ) 

bateau 

batteau 

bourgeois 

binnacle  ) 

binacle    ) 

bunn 

caldron 

canvas 

caraway 

checker 

centre 

cigar 

segar 

clinch 


aerie 

ankle 
apprise  ) 
apprize  J 
axe 

bandanna 
battledoor  ) 
battledore  j 
bellmetal ) 
belmetal  ) 

bodice  ) 
boddice  J 
burr 

calligraphy ) 
caligraphy  J 
carcass 
chemistry 
chameleon 
cimeter    ) 
scymitar  ) 
contemporary 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


51 


connection  ^ 
connexion  ) 
cntlass 
decrepit 
develop    ) 
develope  J 
despatch  I 
dispatch  J 
downfall  / 
downfal  J 
ecstasy 
enigma 
encyclopaedia  ) 
encyclopedia  ) 
ingrain 
aesthetics  ) 
esthetics  ) 
fiUibeg     ) 
phillibeg  J 
frustum 
gauge 
gimlet    } 
gimblet  ) 

gypsy  I 

gypsey  f 
hoarhound  ) 
horehound  \ 


hoyden 
install  ) 
instal  ) 
gnarled 
licorice    \ 
liquorice  ) 
loath  )  /    .. . 
loth    fW-) 
maltreat 
maletreat 
moccason  * 
moccasin  J 
negotiate 
oxyd  ) 
oxide  ) 
peddler ) 
pedlar    ) 
philtre  ) 
philter  ) 
practise  (verb) 


cosey 
cue 

cyclopaedia ) 
cyclopedia   ) 
development    |^ 
developement  J 
distention  ' 
distension 
dryly 
drily 
embody  ) 
imbody  ( 
endorse  ) 
indorse  \ 
envelop  (verb) 
fagot    ) 
faggot  ) 
forestall 
frenetic     ) 
phrenetic  ) 
gayety  } 
gaiety  ) 
granddaughter 
grandaughter 
group    J 
groupe  j 
height 


holiday  ) 

holyday  J 

jonquille 

lackey  ) 

laquey  ) 

loadstar 

lodgment    ) 

lodgement  J 

marquis 

merchandise 

molases 

melasses 

offence 

pacha  ) 

pasha  ) 

phantasm 

phantom 

plough 

ploughshare 

pretence 


craunch  ) 
cranch    ) 
defence 
dependence 
dexterous  ) 
dextrous    ) 
domicile 
domicil 
dryness 
driness 
enclose  ) 
inclose  ) 
inquire  \ 
enquire  ) 
envelopment 
envelopement 
ferrule 
foretell 
frenzy 
fulfill ) 
fulfil  f 

gayiy  I 

:  gaily  ) 
gray 
grey 

headache 
headach 


hydrangea 
jail 

judgment    ) 
judgement  ) 
lacquer  ) 
lacker    ) 
malcontent 
malecontent 
mattress 
metre 
mosquito 
mould 
ottar  ) 
otto  ) 
panel    ) 
pannel  J 
phial  ) 
vial    ) 
porpoise  ) 
porpus    J 


crumb 
crum 
dependent 
deposit 
dyke 
diocese 
dote  ) 
doat  ) 
dulness  ) 
dullness  ) 
empassioned  ) 
impassioned  J 
inquiry 
enquiry 
era 

filigree  ) 
filagree  ) 
foundery  ) 
foundry    J 
fulness  ) 
fullness  ) 
fusee  I 
fusil  [ 
gibe) 
jibef 
gulf     ) 
gulph  5 
hinderance ) 
hindrance    J 
innuendo 
jailer 
justle  ) 
jostle  ) 
lavender  ) 
lavendar  \ 
malpractice    ) 
malepractice  ) 
meagre 
misspell  ) 
mispell    ) 
mustache    ) 
moustache  J 
paralyse  ) 
paralyze  ) 
partisan  1 
partizan  S 
ploughman 
postilion   ) 
postillion  ) 


52 


EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 


pupillary 
recognise 
Saviour  ' 


savior 
scythe 
sergeant 
Serjeant 
sienite 
syenite 
smallness  ) 
smalness  J 
soothe  (verb) 
steelyard  ) 
stillyard  ) 
sirloin   ) 
surloin  ) 
tranquillise 
unroll  \ 
unrol  ) 
villany   ) 
villainy  ) 
whisky    ) 
whiskey  ) 
woollen 


purr 
reverie  ? 
revery  ) 
sceptical 
sentinel 
sheathe  (verb) 
shyly  ^ 
shily 
syrup 
sirup   , 
smooth  (verb) 
spectre 
stillness  \ 
stilness  j 
systematise  ) 
systematize  J 
trousers  ^ 


trowsers 
vermilion  ) 
Vermillion  J 
vizier 
wintry    ) 
wintery  J 
wreathe  (verb) 


pygmy 
pigmy 
sceptic 
scepticism 
sequin 
show 
shyness 
shiness 
skull  ) 
scull  ) 
somerset 
spinach  ) 
spinage  ( 
theatre 
tallncss 
talness 
turquoise  \ 
turkois      ) 
vial    I 
phial  S 
wagon    ) 
waggon  ) 
wizard    ) 
wizzard  ) 


ratan  ) 
rattan  ) 
sceptre 
scion  ) 
cion    ) 
shrillness  ) 
shrilness  J 
slyly  / 
slily  f 
slyness  ) 
sliness    f 
stanch    J 
staunch  ) 
ton 

toilet     1 
toilette  ) 
unbiassed  ) 
unbiased    ) 
villanous  ) 
villainous  ) 
welsh  ) 
welch  J 
woe  ) 
wo    J 


EXERCISE  III. 
SYLLABICATION. 

Introditctory  Explanations.^  —  Orthography,  as  a 
branch  of  grammar,  includes  whatever  regards  the 
component  letters  of  a  word,  and  consequently  takes 
cognizance  of  their  grouping,  or  arrangement  in  clus- 
ters, corresponding  to  the  necessary  division  of  words 
into  parts,  by  the  natural  action  of  the  organs  of 
speech.  To  these  parts  is  given  the  grammatical 
designation  of"  syllables",  {jportions  taken  together  ;) 
and  the  process  of  making  these  divisions,  is  accord- 
ingly termed  syllabication. 

The  process  of  syllabication  is  appropriately  em- 
ployed, in  systematic  instruction,  as  a  means  of  faci- 
litating the  young  learner's  first  attempts  in  pronoun- 
cing polysyllables.  The  multiplicity  of  letters  pre- 
sented in  such  words,  would  confuse  and  embarrass 
his  unpractised  eye.  But  he  finds  that  he  can  man- 
age them  more  easily  by  reducing  the  word,  for  the 
moment,  to  the  footing  of  a  monosyllable,  by  sepa- 
rating it  into  its  constituent  syllables,  and  taking 
them  up,  one  by  one.  He  is,  in  this  way,  enabled 
to  master  the  whole  word  by  enunciating  a  syllable 

*  The  introductory  explanations  which  precede  the  statement 
of  the  practical  exercise,  in  this  and  other  instances,  are  meant 
to  be  adapted,  by  the  requisite  oral  modifications  from  the  teach- 
er, to  the  capacity  of  the  class  under  his  instruction.  The  chief 
purpose  of  such  explanatory  teaching,  is  not  so  much  to  remove 
ditiicuUies,  as  to  attract  attention  to  the  subject,  by  presenting  it 
in  interesting  forms,  which  may  give  it  a  freshness  of  aspect  to 
the  mind. 

5=*  (53) 


54  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

at  a  time,  and,  afterwards,  the  wliole  series,  in  se- 
quence, as  one  word. 

But,  important  as  syllabication  is,  in  the  aid  which 
it  renders  to  audible  reading,  it  is  not  less  so  in  the 
dividing  of  words  to  the  eye,  —  as  an  assistance  to 
the  silent  perusal  of  the  ivritten  page.  In  writing,  a 
word  sometimes  occurs  so  near  to  the  end  of  one 
line,  that  all  its  letters  or  syllables  cannot  be  con- 
tained in  that  line,  and  part  of  them  must  be  carried 
into  the  next.  It  becomes  a  matter  of  importance, 
then,  that,  in  solving  this  practical  difficulty,  the  di- 
vision be  appropriately  made,  in  conformity  with  the 
component  parts  of  the  word  ;  otherwise,  the  eye 
may  be  confused  by  a  collocation  of  letters  which 
baffles  or  misleads  the  mind,  in  its  attempt  to  recog- 
nise the  successive  syllables,  and  consequently  leaves 
the  reader  at  a  loss  for  the  sense  of  what  is  written. 

The  general  rule  given  on  this  subject,  by  gram- 
marians, is,  that,  in  syllabication,  words  should  be 
divided  by  arranging  the  letters  in  groups  con-espond- 
ing  to  those  into  which  they  naturally  fall,  in  correct 
pronunciation.  This  rule  would  be,  in  all  cases,  a 
safe  guide ;  and  there  could  be  no  perplexity  in  at- 
tempting to  apply  it,  were  the  question  one  which 
related  to  the  usage  of  spoken  language,  which  con- 
sults the  ear  rather  than  the  eye.  The  rule,  accord- 
ingly, holds  good  in  oral  spelling,  in  which  syllabica- 
tion is  employed  as  an  aid  to  pronunciation ;  and,  in 
the  columns  of  the  spelling-book,  therefore,  the 
learner  may  find  such  words  as  haJcer,  maker,  turner, 
assistance,  etc.,  divided  thus ;  ba-ker,  ma-ker,  tur-ner, 
as-sis-tance,  etc. 

In  the  case  of  written  language,  in  its  general 
forms,  however,  the  sound  of  words  and  syllables  to 
the  ear,  not  being  the  main  object  of  attention,  the 
syllabication  of  a  word  is  performed  with  more  regard 
to  the  action  of  the  eye,  as  suggesting  the  meaning 
to  the  mind,  by  a  division  of  the  word  according  to 


SYLLABICATION.  55 

its  etymology.  The  written  form  of  a  word  com- 
monly reveals  its  derivation ;  which  is  not  necessa- 
rily the  fact  in  spoken  language ;  as  the  successive 
changes  and,  sometimes,  the  corruptions  of  speech 
throw  an  utter  obscurity  over  the  actual  orthography 
and  derivation  of  many  words.  Hence  the  greater 
tendency,  in  writing,  to  favor,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
etymological  rather  than  the  orthoepical  mode  of 
syllabication.  If,  therefore,  we  adopt,  in  written  ex- 
pression, the  general  rule  before  quoted,  we  must 
make  allowance  for  certain  exceptions,  in  which  the 
former  of  these  modes  is  followed,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  latter. 

It  would  be  a  great  convenience,  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  written  language,  if,  in  those  instances  in 
which  a  division  of  words  into  syllables  becomes 
necessary,  we  could  carry  the  principle  of  etymo- 
logical syllabication  tlirough  all  the  parts  of  a  word. 
But  custom,  wliich  has  absolute  sway  in  all  matters 
of  language,  has  so  habituated  the  eye,  in  tracing 
the  lines  of  written  composition,  to  obey  the  early 
rule  of  practice  in  oral  syllabication,  that  to  deviate 
from  it  would  be  an  offence.  Thus,  we  could  not 
endure  a  syllabic  division  such  as  this, —  salv-at-io7i, 
pre-fat-or-y, — although  it  presents  the  actual  deriva- 
tion and  composition,  and  suggests,  at  once,  the 
proper  signification  of  the  words.  The  rule  of  ap- 
proved custom,  we  find,  limits  the  etymological 
division  to  terminations  and,  in  particular,  to  affixes, 
or  suffixes,  and  witholds  it,  in  many  cases,  even  from 
prefixes.  The  principle,  therefore,  of  dividing  words 
into  syllables  corresponding  to  the  derivation  and 
composition  of  their  parts,  while  it  does  not  uniformly 
apply  to  initial,  and  seldom  to  middle  syllables,  holds 
good  in  suffixes,  and  detaches  them  from  the  roots 
which  precede  them,  so  as  to  leave  the  root  of  a 
word,  —  the  main  key  to  its  meaning,  —  a  full  and 


56  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

distinct  effect  on  the  eye  and  the  mind.  Hence,  in 
passing  from  the  speUing-book,  (which  is  primarily 
intended  to  be  used  as  an  introductory  aid  to  the 
audible  process  of  reading  aloud,)  to  the  dictionary, 
(which  is  intended  as  a  guide,  not  only  in  orthoepy, 
but  in  orthography,  in  its  strict  acceptation  of  written 
spelhng,  and  in  the  definition  of  terms,  and  is  used 
for  silent  reference,  rather  than  oral  practice,)  the 
learner  will  find  the  words  formerly  quoted,  divided 
thus  :  hak-er,  mak-er,  turn-er,  as-sist-ance. 

Exercise. —  The  most  convenient  form  of 
prescribing  and  performing  exercises  in  syllabica- 
tion, is  to  unite  them  with  those  in  written  spell- 
ing, as  suggested  under  the  preceding  head  of 
"  Orthography."  It  is  a  great  economy  of  time, 
and,  at  the  same  moment,  an  exceedingly  useful 
training,  to  present,  in  the  act  of  writing  the 
words  prescribed  by  the  teacher,  the  proper  sylla- 
bication of  every  one,  marked  by  the  hyphen, 
along  with  its  orthography.  Opportunity,  also,  is 
thus  found  for  accustoming  the  pupil  to  the 
proper  discrimination,  in  the  practice  of  written 
spelling,  as  regards  the  difference  between  it  and 
oral  spelling,  in  the  terminations  of  the  classes  of 
words  referred  to  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  in 
connection  with  the  distinction  to  be  observed  be- 
tween orthographical  and  etymological  spelling. 

Examples  of  Rules  in  Written  Syllabication. 

I.  When  a  single  consonant  follows  the  name 
sound  of  the  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y,  the  consonant 
falls  into  the  succeeding  syllable ;  as  in  ha-lo,  fe- 
male, ti-ny,  ho-ly,  du-ly,  thy-my. 

II.  When  a  single  consonant  follows  the   short 


SYLLABICATION.  57 

sound  of  the  vowels  a,  e^  i,  o,  u,  y,  it  is  attached 
to  the  vowel ;  as  in  al-um,  ev-er,  im-age,  Jiom-age, 
ujj-on,  hyp'O-crite. 

III.  When  two  consonants  occur  between  two 
vowels,  one  of  the  consonants  is  attached  to  the 
preceding,  and  the  other  to  the  latter  vowel ;  as  in 
ac-tu-ate,  fes-tive,  im-pede,  oc-tave,  un-der,  cym- 
bal. 

Exceptions.  —  The  suffixes  -er  and  -ing,  as  in 
task-er,  kind-er,  vast-er,  act-ing,  gasp-ing,  wast-ing. 

IV.  "When  three  consonants  occur  between  two 
vowels,  the  first  consonant  is  commonly  attached  to 
the  former,  and  the  last  two,  to  the  latter  vowel ;  as 
in  dis-place,  up-hraid,  un-dress,  obstruct,  con-gresSy 
cmi-clude,  dis-tress. 

V.  The  suffixes,  -ed,  -er,  and  -ing,  commonly  con- 
stitute a  separate  syllable  from  the  other  syllables  or 
letters  of  a  word;  as  in  act-ed,  mark-ed,  ivarp-cd, 
read-er,  wait-er,  weav-er,  read-ing,  wait-ing,  weav-ing. 

Exceptions.  —  (1.)  When  the  suffixes,  -ed,  -er,  and 
-ing,  follow  the  liquids,  /,  m,  n,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  the  liquid  is  attached  to  the  suffix ;  as  in  ta- 
mer, ta-ming,  ti-ler,  ti-ling,  shi-ner,  shi-ning.  —  (2.) 
When  they  follow  c  or  ^  soft,  the  consonant  is  at- 
tached to  the  suffix ;  as  in  ra-cer,  ra-cing,  wa-ger, 
wa-ging.  —  (3.)  When  they  follow  a  double  conso- 
nant, the  latter  of  the  two  consonants  is  attached  to 
the  suffix ;  as  in  sad-der,  glad-der,  lad-der,  blab-bing, 
mad-der,  mad-ding,  cram-ming,  rap-ping,  bat-ter,  bat-  | 
ting,  bet-ter,  bet-ting,  fit-ter,  fit-ting,  stop-per,  stop-ping,  \ 
but-ter,  but-ting,  cup-per,  cup-ping.  j 

Suggestions.  —  In  the  process  of  correcting  errors  ' 
in  orthography,  on  the  plan  formerly  proposed,  it 
should  be  the  corrector's  duty,  in  all  cases,  to  mark, 
also,  errors  in  syllabication ;  and,  when  the  teacher 
adopts  the  method  of  writing,  on  the  blackboard,  a 
model  exemplification  of  the  words  of  the  lesson  in 


58  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

orthography,  so  as  to  furnish  a  standard  for  deciding 
the  propriety  of  corrections,  he  should  uniformly 
insert  the  hyphen  between  the  syllables  of  all  the 
words  of  the  lesson. 

The  early  formation  of  correct  habit,  makes  a 
careful  attention  to  this  branch  of  practical  gram- 
mar, a  matter  of  gTeat  importance  to  accuracy  and 
despatch,  in  whatever  form  of  business  requires  the 
skill  of  a  correct  and  ready  writer. 


EXERCISE  IV. 
ETYMOLOGICAL  ANALYSIS. 

Introductory  JExplanations.  —  The  orthoepy,  or- 
thography, and  syllabication  of  words,  having  re- 
ceived due  attention,  the  learner's  next  step  should 
be,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  significance  of 
every  constituent  syllable  of  a  word  selected  for 
study.  Words  being  the  representatives  of  ideas, 
the  study  of  them  becomes,  virtually,  the  study  of 
ideas,  —  the  observation  of  the  facts  and  modes  of 
intellectual  action;  and  the  peculiar  value  of  that 
part  of  education  which  has  to  do  with  language,  is 
that,  of  all  forms  of  expression  which  we  can  con- 
template, none  lies  so  near  to  the  mind  itself,  —  none 
is  so  purely  intellectual,  as  language ;  —  none  is  so 
happily  suited  to  employ  and  discipline  those  mental 
faculties,  the  possession  of  which  constitutes  man 
an  image  of  God.  The  crowning  endowment  con- 
ferred on  man,  which  renders  this  resemblance  to 
his  Creator  manifest,  is  speech,  —  the  wondrous 
power  by  which  thought  is  uttered  in  the  audible 
form  of  words.  By  these  instruments  of  power  do 
the  poet  and  the  orator  inspire  and  sway  the  minds 
of  their  fellow  men,  through  successive  ages.  For 
centuries,  have  the  words  of  such  men  been  the 
study  and  the  delight  of  mankind ;  and  the  written 
volumes  through  which  they,  "being  dead,  yet 
speak,"  have,  in  all  civilised  countries,  justly  fur- 
nished the  material  for  the  highest  intellectual  cul- 
ture of  the  human  race. 

To  appreciate  the  true  value,  or  feel  the  full  power 

(59} 


60  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

of  any  form  of  expression,  or  even  to  understand 
aright  the  meaning  of  a  word,  we  must  perceive  dis- 
tinctly the  significance  of  every  one  of  its  compo- 
nent syllables,  or  even  of  its  very  letters,  taken 
singly.  The  language  which  we  inherit  comes  down 
to  us  from  remote  ages,  and  is  composed,  to  a  great 
extent,  of  words  borrowed  from  other  languages; 
and,  to  understand  or  use  it  rightly,  we  must  refer  to 
ancient  and  foreign  tongues,  in  order  to  become  in- 
telligent and  expert  in  the  use  of  our  own.  Persons 
who  enjoy  the  privilege  of  a  full  knowledge  of  these 
languages,  possess  a  peculiar  advantage,  in  this 
respect;  and  such  knowledge  is  exceedingly  de- 
sirable. But,  as  few,  comparatively,  are  thus  favored, 
the  majority  of  those  who  speak  English,  in  its  con- 
temporary form,  must,  in  referring  to  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  many  words,  depend  on  the  aid  of  those  who, 
as  lexicographers  and  compilers  of  dictionaries,  have 
rendered  the  sources  of  our  language  accessible  to 
all  who  choose  to  resort  to  them. 

An  important  part,  therefore,  of  early  education,  is 
occupied  with  the  process  of  investigating  the  mean- 
ing of  words,  by  reference  to  dictionaries  which  ena- 
ble us  to  trace  their  derivation,  and  thus  to  obtain 
the  benefit  of  a  full  course  of  instruction  in  that  part 
of  grammar  which  is  termed  "  etymology,"  —  the 
science  of  derivation. 

Our  language  is  a  compound  made  up  of  many 
elements.  But,  among  these,  one  predominates,  as 
primitive  and  simplest,  and  as  most  easily  intelligible, 
and  strikingly  expressive,  because  it  consists  of  those 
words  which  are  in  common  use  in  our  homes,  and 
which  we  hear  and  learn  in  our  childhood.  It  is  the 
language  which  our  mothers  address  to  us,  in  our  in- 
fancy, and  which,  in  all  its  words,  we  have  associated 
not  with  other  words  but  with  things  themselves. 
When  we  are  old  enough  to  enter  the  world  of 
books,  we  find  there  many  other  words  intermingled 


ETYMOLOGICAL    ANALYSIS.  61 

with  those  of  our  vernacular  tongue ;  and,  by  de- 
grees, we  gather  their  meanings  from  those  of  the 
home  words  w^ith  which  they  are  synonymous,  and 
which  are  aheady  famihar  to  us.  This  mixed  dialect 
we  hear  adults  around  us  using  daily,  partly  in  con- 
versation on  elevated  subjects,  but,  still  more,  in  pub- 
lic addresses  on  matters  of  general  concern  and 
excursive  thought.  We  thus  become  accustomed 
personaUy,  in  due  season,  to  its  use,  as  best  adapted 
to  expansive  ideas,  abstract  reasonmg,  argumentative 
discussion,  and  philosophical  theorising. 

To  understand  perfectly  these  uses  of  language, 
we  must  know  the  primitive  meanings  of  the  words 
^vhich  we  find  prevailing  in  the  forms  of  expression 
adopted  in  books,  and  which  we  have  not  been  ac- 
customed to  use  in  familiar  connection  with  the  ob- 
jects which  they  represent.  Such  words  have  only 
a  secondary,  and,  as  it  were,  a  shadowy  meaning  to 
our  minds,  till  we  have  learned  to  connect  them,  in- 
dividually, with  a  corresponding  Avord  in  our  own 
primitive  or  vernacular  language,  which  word  we  at 
once  refer  to  the  thing  which  it  signifies.  The  idea 
thus  called  up,  is  like  the  familiar  face  of  an  old 
friend,  contrasted  with  the  countenance  of  one  who 
is  a  stranger,  and  known  to  us  as  merely  a  human 
being. 

The  dictionary  offers  us  its  assistance  in  our  at- 
tempts to  trace  the  primary  connections  of  words 
with  objects,  in  those  instances  in  which  the  recog- 
nition of  this  connection  depends  on  a  knowledge  of 
the  original  languages  from  which  a  large  part  of  our 
own  is  derived.  The  faithful  study  of  the  dic- 
tionary, therefore,  becomes  the  condition  of  our  right 
understanding  of  many  words.  Take,  for  example, 
the  word  astronomy.  We  know,  from  what  Ave  have 
heard,  or  read,  that  it  refers  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
stars.  But  it  is  not  till  we  have  learned  that  the 
word  is  made  up  of  two  Greek  words,  astron,  "  star," 
G 


62  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

or  constellation,  and  nomos,  "  law,"  or  science,  that 
we  understand  the  full  value  of  the  English  word 
thus  derived  and  compounded. 

Exercises  in  etymological  analysis,  are  the  only 
means  of  enabling  the  young  student  to  feel  at  home 
in  all  parts  of  his  oAvn  language,  and  to  use  its  words 
with  intelhgent  and  discriminating  effect. 

Exercise.  —  (1.)  Prefixes.  —  A  preliminary 
course  of  instruction  and  practice  in  etymology, 
consists  in  tracing,  in  the  manner  exemplified 
in  the  following  lists,  the  signification  of  those 
words  which  constitute  the  initial  syllable  or 
syllables  of  many  English  words,  and  have  hence 
received  the  designation  of  "  prefixes  ",  or  words 
or  syllables  prefixed  to  other  words,  to  modify 
their  meaning. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.  —  It  is  greatly  to  be  de- 
sired that  a  complete  course  of  exercises  in  the  ety- 
mological analysis  of  words,  should  form  a  part  of 
grammatical  instruction,  in  all  schools,  and  that  every 
spelling-book  should,  at  least,  comprise  a  brief  course 
of  lessons  on  the  use  and  signification  of  prefixes 
and  sufiixes.  Lynd's  series  of  etymological  manuals, 
and  Oswald's  etymological  Dictionary,  are  excellent- 
ly adapted  to  the  former  purpose ;  and  teachers  who 
make  use  of  the  improved  edition  of  the  spelling- 
book  compiled  by  the  author  of  the  present  work, 
will  find,  in  that  manual,  a  selection  of  lessons  pre- 
pared for  the  latter  purpose.=^ 

*  One  of  the  most  valuable  school-books,  as  a  guide  to  exact 
and  complete  information  on  all  points  of  etymology,  as  well  as 
every  other  subject,  connected  with  the  study  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, is  the  dictionary  of  Mr.  Alexander  lleid  of  Edinburgh,  re- 
edited  by  the  late  Professor  Henry  Reed  of  Philadelphia,  and 
published  by  Applcton  &  Co.,  New  York. 


ETYMOLOGICAL    ANALYSIS.  63 

For  the  convenience  of  teachers  in  whose  schools 
etymological  analysis  has  not  been  introduced,  as  a 
regular  branch  of  instruction,  the  following  outhne  is 
submitted,  as  an  aid  to  the  performance  of  exercises 
by  the  pupil.  The  matter  here  presented  may,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  be  prescribed  in  daily 
successive  portions,  on  the  blackboard,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  transcribed  and  committed  to  memory, 
by  the  pupil,  and  presented  in  examples  additional 
to  the  following.* 

A  List  of  the  principal  original  English,  or  Saxon, 
Prefixes. 

A-,  signifying  on,  to,  in,  at:  Examples,  A-foot,  a- 
head,  a-bed,  a-side.  —  Be-,  to  make,  to  give:  Be- 
dim, be-calm,  be-cloud,  be-stow. — Down,  Down-fall, 
down -lying,  down-sitting.  —  For-,  signifying  away: 
Examples,  For-bid,  for-get,  for-give,  for-sake. — Fore-, 
before :  Fore-see,  fore-tell,  fore-show,  fore-arm,  fore- 
warn.—  Mis-,  error,  ill,  defect:  Mis-take,  mis-deed, 
mis-demeanor,  mis-lead.  —  Out-,  beyond:  Out-bid, 
out-do,  out-run,  out-vie.  —  Over-,  beyond:  Over- 
reach, over-set,  over-do,  over-look,  over-see.  —  Un-, 
not,  do  away:  Un-able,  un-apt,  un-fair,  un-bar,  un- 
fold, un-do.  —  Under-,  Under-mine,  under-go,  un- 
der-rate.  —  Up-,  Up-hold,  up-take,  up-bear,  up-heave. 
—  With-  signifying /ro??z,  against:  With-draw,  with- 
hold, with-stand. 

Prefixes  qfLati?i  Origin. 
A-,  AB-,  sigmfjing  from,  away:   Examples,  A-bate, 

*  "Words  selected  from  the  reading-lesson  of  the  day,  will  al- 
waya  be  found  the  most  interesting,  as  well  as  immediately  use- 
ful, material  for  class-exercises  in  the  various  forms  of  etymologi- 
cal analysis.  A  limited  number  of  words  may  be  assigned,  for 
this  purpose,  from  those  which  are  given  out  for  practice  in  or- 
thography. 


64  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

(bate  from;)  a- vert,  (turn  from;)  ab-ject,  (thrown;*) 
ab-jure,  (swear;)  ab-rupt,  (broken.) — Ad-,  sometimes 
changed,  for  the  eifect  of  euphony,  into  a-,  ac-,  af-, 
ag-,  al-,  ap-,  ar-,  as-,  at-,  signifying  to :  Ad-join,t  a- 
scend,  (climb;)  accord,  (agree;)  af-flux,  (flowing;) 
ag-gravate,  (make  heavy ;)  al-lot;  annex,  (tie;)  ap- 
proach, (draw near;)  ar-rive,  (flow;)  as-sume,  (take;) 
at-tach,  (fasten.)- Ante-,  before:  Ante-cedent,  (going;) 
ante-dihivian,  (flood;)  ante-mundane,  (world;)  ante- 
date.—  Bi-,  twice,  two,  double  :  Bi-ennial,  (year;)  bi- 
furcate, (pronged;)  bi-valve,  (shell.)  —  Cis-,  07i  this 
side :  Cis-alpine,  Cis-atlantic.  —  Con-,  changed,  for 
euphony,  into  co-,  cog-,  col-,  com-,  cor-,  signifying  with, 
together :  Con-cur,  $  co-equal,  cog-nate,  (born,  allied ;) 
col-lect,  (gather;)  com-pose,  (put;)  con-nect  (bind;) 
cor-respond,  (answer.)  —  Contra-,  or  counter-,  a- 
gainst,  ox>posite :  Contra-diet,  (say;)  contra- vene, 
(come;)  counter-act,  counter-part. — I^y.-, down, from: 
De-duct,  (draw;)  de-ject,  (throw;)  de-cease,  (with- 
draw;) de-ter,  (frighten;)  de-scend,  (climb.)  —  Dis-, 
DI-,  or  DIF-,  away,  aside,  not :  Dis-arm,  dis-ease,  dis- 
own, di-gress,  (go;)  divert,  (turn;)  dif-ferent,  (bear- 
ing;) dis-agree;  dis-place,  dis-please.  —  Ex-,  or  e-, 
EC-,  EF-,  out:  Ex-pand,  ex-hume,  (ground;)  ex- 
trude, (thnist;)  ex-clude,  (close;)  e-mit,  (send,)  e- 
ject,  (throw;)  ec-centric,  (centre;)  ef-fuse,  (shed.) 
—  Extra-,  beyond:  Extra-mural,  (wall;)  extra-mun- 
dane, (world;)  extra-ordinary;  extra- vagant,  (wan- 
dering.) —  In-,  or  IL-,  IM-,  IR-,  EN-,  EM-,  in,  into,  on; 


*  To  avoid  unnecessary  repetitions,  the  signification  of  the 
prefix  is  left  to  be  understood  and  supplied  by  the  pupil. 

t  When  the  root  of  the  word  is  familiar  English,  its  meaning  is 
left  to  be  inferred. 

X  The  meaning  of  the  Latin  word  which  forms  the  root  of  the 
derivative,  is,  in  some  instances,  necessarily  assumed,  in  the  above 
list.  In  the  performance  of  exercises,  it  may  be  given  by  the 
teacher,  or  obtained  from  the  dictionary,  as  may  seem  advisable, 
according  to  the  stage  of  advancement  attained  by  different  classes. 


ETYMOLOGICAL   ANALYSIS.  65 

Induce,  (lead;)  in-fiise,  (shed;)  in-grain;  il-lumine, 
(shine;)  im-pel,  (drive;)  in-fuse,  (shed;)  ir-radiate, 
(beam ;)  en-chain ;  en-grave ;  em-body ;  em-balm. 

Note.  —  The  prefix  W2-,  in  its  various  forms,  has 
sometimes  the  signification  of  not  or  un-.  Examples, 
In-vincible,  (conquerable ;)  in-tolerable,  (bearable ;) 
il-limitable,  (to  be  bounded;)  il-licit  (lawful;)  im- 
pure ;  im-passable ;  ir-regular,  (according  to  rule ;)  ir- 
repressible, (to  be  put  down.) 

Inter-,  between,  among :  Inter-pose,  (put ;)  inter- 
sperse, (scatter ;)  inter-vene,  (come ;)  inter-lude, 
(play.)  —  Intro-,  within,  htward:  Intro-duce,  (lead;) 
intro-vert,  (turn ;)  intro-spection,  (looking.)  —  Non-, 
Tiot,  Non-arrival;  non-intercourse;  non-intervention. 

—  Ob-,  or  0C-,  of-,  op-,  against,  opposite :  Ob-trude, 
(tlirust;)  ob-ject,  (throw;)  occlude,  (shut,)  of-fend, 
(strike ;)  op-pose,  (place.)  —  Per-,  through,  Per-ma- 
nent,  (staying ;)  per-vade,  (go;)  per-meate,  (wander, 
wind ;)  per-mit,  (send ;)  percussion,  (striking.)  — 
Post-,  after,  Post-pone,  (place ;)  post-obit,  (death ;) 
post-humous,  (earth.)  —  Pre-,  before,  Pre-cede,  (go;) 
prefer,  (bring,  put ;)  pre-occupy ;  premonition,  (warn- 
ng;)  pre-lude,  (play ;)  pre-clude,  (shut.)  —  Pro-,  ^/or, 
forth.  Pro-consul;  pro-ceed,  (go;)  pro-mote,  (move;) 
pro-trude,  (thrust.)  —  Preter-,  beyond,  past:  Preter- 
natural ;  preter-mission,  (sending.) — Re-,  again,  back, 
Re-sume,  (take  ;)  re-place ;  renew ;  re-volve,  (turn ;) 
re-act;  re-vert,  (turn;)  re-bel,  (fight;)  re-sist,  (stand.) 

—  Retro-,  backward.  Retrocession,  (going;)  retro- 
action, retro-grade,  (step;)  retro-spection,  (looking.) 

—  Se-,  apart,  Se-cede,  (go;)  se-gregate,  (gather;) 
se-duce,  (draw.)  —  Sub-,  suf-,  sup-,  under.  Sub-ju- 
gate, (yoke;)  sub-ordinate,  (rank;)  sub-tract,  (draw;) 
suf-fer,  (bear ;)  suf-fix ;  sup-pose  (put ;)  sup-press. 
Super-,  over,  above,  up)on,  Super-fine,  super- vision, 
(seeing;)  super-natural;  super-position,  (placing;) 
super-vene,    (come  ;)    super-sede    (sit.)  —  Trans-, 

6# 


66  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

over,  beyond,  Trans-fer,  (cany  ;)  trans-pose,  (place ;) 
trans-gress,  (go ;)  trans-Atlantic ;  trans-ition,  (going ;) 
trans-plant. 

Prefixes  of  Greek  Origin. 

A-,  signifying  without:  Examples,  A-theist,  (with- 
out God;)  a-morplious,  (shape;)  a-tony,  (tone.)  — 
Amphi-,  double;  Amphibious,  (life;)  amphi -theatre. 
—  Ana-,  up,  through,  Analyse,  (solve;)  ana-tomy, 
(cut,  divide.)  —  Anti-,  against,  opposite.  Anti-febrile, 
(fever;)  anti-dote,  (given);  anti-podes,  (feet.)  — 
Avo-,  from,  Apo-strophe,  (turn;)  apo-state,  (stand- 
ing:) apo-stle,  (sent.)  —  Dia-,  or  di-,  through:  Dia- 
meter, (measure;)  dia-gonal,  (corner;)  di-seresis,  (di- 
vision, separation.)  —  Epi-,  cw,  Epi-gram,  (wi'itten;) 
epi-taph,  (tomb ;)  epi-dermis,  (skin.)  —  Hyper-,  over. 
Hyper-bole,  (cast;)  hyper- criticism.  Hypo-,  under. 
Hypo-thesis,  (placing;)  hypo-gene,  (earth.) — Meta-, 
beyond,  Meta -physical,  (natural;)  meta-phor,  (carry;) 
meta-morphosis,  (shaping.)  —  Para-,  from,  beyond, 
Para-plirase,  (expression ;)  para-graph,  (writing ;) 
para-dox,  (opinion,  thought.)  —  Peri-  around:  Peri- 
meter, (measure ;)  peri-patetic,  (walking ;)  peri- 
scope, (view.)  —  Syn-,  or  sym-,  together.  Synod, 
(going;)  syn-tax,  (arranging;)  syn-thesis,  (placing;) 
sym-pathy,  feeling ;  sym-metry,  (measuring ;)  sym- 
phony, (sounding.) 

Exercise.  —  (2.)  Affixes.,  or  Svffixes.*  —  The 
second  step  in  etymological  analysis  leads  to  the 
study  of  the  final  syllables  of  words,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  tracing  their  special  significance,  as  an 

=*  The  former  of  the  above  designations,  is  generally  adopted 
by  English,  the  latter  by  American  writers.  The  latter  term  is 
the  more  significant  as  regards  the  closeness  of  the  connection  be- 
tween the  root  and  the  termination  of  a  word,  the  actual  position 
of  the  final  syllable,  and  its  comparatively  inferior  character. 


ETYMOLOGICAL    ANALYSIS.  67 

aid  to  the  full  and  exact  comprehension  of  the 
meaning  of  the  whole  word  which  is,  for  the  time, 
the  object  of  attention.  The  mode  of  performing 
an  exercise  on  suffixes,  corresponds  to  that  which 
has  been  prescribed  and  exemplified  under  pre- 
fixes. 

Note.  —  The  root  of  the  word,  when,  in  any  case, 
it  is  not  familiar  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  may  be 
obtained  by  referring  to  the  teacher,  or  to  the  dic- 
tionary, as   may  be   expedient   for    individuals    or 

classes. 

Original  English  Suffixes. 

-ER,  signifying  one  ivho :  Examples,  Mak-er,  wait- 
er, hold-er. ling, -kin,  5wa//;    Gos-ling,  lord-ling, 

lamb-kin,  manni-kin. hood,  conditimi:  Child-hood, 

boy-hood,  man-hood. ness,  quality,  state:  Bold- 
ness, good-ness,  remote-ness. th,  condition:   Death, 

youth,  health,  wealth. en,  made  of:  Gold-en,  earth- 
en, wood-en. ship,   office,   condition:    Clerk-ship, 

hard-ship,  friend-ship. 

Suffixes  derived  from  the  Latin  language  through 
the   French. 

-AN,  -ANT,  -ENT,  onc  who  is,  docs,  makes,  or  belongs  to : 
Artis-an,    serv-ant,   attend-ant,   ag-ent,   depend-ent, 

constitu-ent. ar,  or  -ard,  one  who  is  or  does:  Li-ar, 

begg-ar,  cow-ard,  dot-ard. ee,  one  to  whom  any- 
thing is   given  or  done:    Trust-ee,  legat-ee. eer, 

one  ivfbo  is  or  does :  Mountain- eer,  mutin-eer,  volunt- 
eer.   ACY,  condition,  state :  Suprem-acy,  obstin-acy, 

obdur-acy. age,  condition,  state :  Bond-age,  peer- 
age,   marri-age. ance,  -ancy,  -ence,   -ency,  act, 

condition,  state :  Guid-ance,  compli-ance,  const-ancy, 
vagr-ancy,  depend-ence,  dilig-ence,  ag-ency,  dec- 
ency.   ion,  act,  state :   Un-ion,  convers-ion,  act-ion, 


68  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

addit-ion. ment,  condition,  state,  act:  Embarrass- 
ment, amuse-ment,  judge-ment,  invest-ment,  arbitra- 
ment.  ORY,  place  or  thing  which:  Fact-ory,  repert- 
ory, orat-ory,  hist-ory. ude,  condition,  state,  tendency : 

Attit-ude,  gratit-ude,  latit-ude,  habit-nde. ty,  cow- 

dition,  state,  tendency:   Humili-ty,  civili-ty,  punctuaK- 

ty. XJRE,  thing,  state:    Creat-ure,  lect-ure,  post-ure, 

fiex-ure,  fiss-iire. s y,  thing,  state,  tendency :  Courte- 
sy, minstrel-sy,  fanta-sy,  aposta-sy. ary,  one  tvhoj 

or  which:  Advers-ary,  mission-ary,  commiss-ary,  tribut- 
ary, a3stu-ary. ry,  thing,  place,  art,  quality:  Chival- 
ry, pant-ry,  juggle-ry,  brave-ry. ant,  -ent,  quality, 

character:  Abund-ant,  jubil-ant,  independ-ent,  confid- 
ent.  AR,  -ARY,  quality,  belonging  to:  Regul-ar,  ocul- 
ar, *custom-ary,  planet- ary. ble,  capable,  worthy: 

Aud-ible,   vis-ible,   admir-able,    honor-able. ate, 

office,  condition,  quality,  character,  property :  Deleg- 
ate, candid-ate,  episcop-ate  adeqti-ate,  commensur- 
ate, orn-ate,  obl-ate,  prostr-ate ;  conglomer-ate ist, 

office,  occupation:    Art-ist,  botan-ist,  pian-ist. ive, 

condition,    relation,    tendency:     Capt-ive,    delus-ive, 

subvers-ive,  abus-ive. aceous,  mode  of,  belonging 

to:  Farin-aceous,  crust-aceous,  herb-aceous. icious, 

abounding  in,   tending   to :    Susp-icious,    jud-icious, 

capr-icious. agio  us,   abounding    in,   tending    to: 

Ver-acious,    mend-acious,   contum-acious. eous, 

quality,  propeHy :     Beaut-eous,    dut-eous,   ign-eous, 

lign-eous. ous,     quality,     propeHy  :     Covet-ous, 

prosper-ous,  mountain-ous,  conspicu-ous,  gener-ous, 

oner-ous. al,  signifying  relating  to  :    Examples, 

Aeri-al,  brut-al,  fat-al,  judici-al,  commerci-al,  nav-al, 

agricultur-al. an,  belonging  to :    Rom-an,  Indi-an, 

republic-an. yh,  tending  to:  Viv-id,  morb-id,  stup- 
id.   OR,    one  wJw  :     Creat-or,    spectat-or,    orat-or, 

mediat-or,  rect-or,  protect-or. 

Suffixes  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  through 

the  Latin. ics,  Urt,  or  science:   PoHt-ics,  opt-ics, 

mathemat-ics.  —    -ism,  state,  statement:  Fanatic-ism, 


ETYMOLOGICAL    ANALYSIS.  69 

patriot-ism,  barbar-ism,  wittic-ism.  —    -is,  thing,  con^ 
dltion :   Thes-is,  hypothes-is,  metamorplios-is. 

Grammatical  Suffixes,  or  Inflections. 

Suggestioiis  to  Teachers.  —  For  the  benefit  of  the 
youngest  classes  of  pupils,  it  is  important  that  the 
exercises  in  etymological  analysis  should  extend 
to  the  practice  of  observing  closely  the  character 
and  import  of  the  modifications  which  the  slightest 
changes  in  thought  produce  on  the  final  syllables  of 
words.  These  modifications  should  be  carefully 
traced,  in  the  tln-ee  great  classes  of  inflected  words, 
and  reduced  to  writing,  in  forms  adopted,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher,  according  to  the  mental 
condition  of  different  classes.  The  following  plan 
may  be  used  as  a  suggestive  outline. 

( 1 . )     Inflection  of  Nouns. 

-'s,  signifying  possession.  Examples :  Man'5  fife  ; 
the  boy'5  book;  the  horse'5  head.  —  s,  plurality; 
Book,  book5 ;  hill,  hills ;  river,  rivers ;  horse,  horses ; 
house,  houses  ;  tree,  trees. s'  plurality  and  pos- 
session: The  horses'  heads;  the  cows'  stalls;  the 
boys'  hats. 

(2.)     Adjectives. 

-ER,  or  II,  signifying  more.  Examples :  A  greater 
and  a  wiser  than  Solomon.  Tliis  book  is  larger  than 
that.  This  is  the  longer  one. —  -est,  or  -st,  most: 
The  greatest  and  the  wisest  of  men  ;  the  widest  and 
the  longest  river;  the  highest  mountain;  the  fairest 
prospect. 

(3.)      Verbs. 

-est,  or  ST,  signifying  thou,  oxid.  present  time.  Ex- 
amples:   Thou  lookes^,  thou  heares^,  thou  speakes^; 


70  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

thou  Tocioyest,  tliou  lovest,  thou  see5^,  thou  const. s, 

-ETH,  or  -TH,  he,  she,  or  it,  a.nd  present  time :  He  look*, 
she  move5,  it  see* ;  he  looketh,  she  moveth,  it  seeth. 

ED,  or  -D,  action,  or  condition,  and  past  time :    I 

waited,  he  movec?,  they  hearc?,  we  looked,  she  wan- 
derer?, ye  passed,  they  stopper/. edst,  or  -dst,  ac- 
tion, or  condition,  past  time  and  thou :  Thou  looke^^, 
thou  hearc?*^,  thou  -wmiedst,  thou  shoulc/*^,  thou 
move^*t  —  -iNG,  action,  or  condition,  and  present 
time :  He  is  -wTjlking,  I  am  standm^,  they  are  sitt?;?^, 
we  are  movm^,  she  is  sleep^^^,  thou  art  runnm^,  ye 
are  restm^,  it  is  dying. 

Exercise  in  Review. —  Give  the  meaning  of 
the  original  English  prefix  a.  "Write  examples  :  * 
read,  and,  if  necessary,  correct  them.  Go  through 
all  the  classes  of  prefixes  in  the  same  manner. 
Give  the  meaning  of  all  the  classes  of  suffixes, 
and  exemplify  them  in  the  same  manner. 

Exercise.     (3.)   Primitive  and  Derivative  Words, 
and  Roots. 

Explanatory  Observations.  —  When  the  prefix  and 
suffix  of  a  word  have  been  discussed,  by  reference 
to  their  primitive  signffication,  in  the  part  of  our  lan- 
guage from  which  they  are  derived,  there  remains 
for  analysis,  or  for  investigation,  the  portion  of  the 
word  which  hes  between  the  prefix  and  the  suffix. 
This  may  be  an  original  English  word ;  or  it  may  be 
derived  from  a  Greek  or  a  Latin  word,  or  from  one 
existing  in  any  of  the  modern  languages  from  which 
our  own  language  is  accustomed  to  borrow  terms  in 
which  it  is  itself  deficient  or  less  appropriately  fumish- 

*  Examples  may  be  taken  from  the  columns  of  any  school  dic- 
tionary. The  number  of  examples  required  should  of  course  be 
regulated  by  the  ability  of  the  pupil  or  class. 


^lyMOLOGICAL    ANALYSIS.  71 

ed.  This  main  part,  or  body  of  a  word,  from  its  im- 
portance, as  principal,  to  the  meaning  of  the  whole, 
and  from  the  life  which  it  gives  to  the  other  compon- 
ent parts,  is  termed  the  root.  To  comprehend  fully 
and  appreciate  properly  the  meaning  of  a  complex 
word,  such  as  we  now  refer  to,  we  must  ascertain 
the  signification  of  the  root,  whether  primitive  or  de- 
rivative, which  we  do  by  tracing  it  to  its  connection 
with  the  object  or  idea  which  it  originally  represent- 
ed. If  the  root  is  an  original  English  word,  or  comes 
from  any  one  of  the  great  family  of  Teutonic  dialects 
of  which  the  Saxon  is  one,  we  recognise  its  mean- 
ing perfectly  at  sight,  as  it  has  been  uniformly  asso- 
ciated, from  our  childhood,  with  a  definite  object,  or 
with  an  idea  of  the  mind.  In  such  cases,  therefore, 
we  seldom  need  to  resort  to  the  dictionary  for  aid : 
although,  owing  to  the  changes  which  time  is  always 
making  on  a  Uving  language,  we  shall  find  that,  even 
in  relation  to  vernacular  words,  much  light  is  thrown 
upon  their  meaning,  when  we  trace  them  to  their 
primitive  form  and  signification.  A  pecuhar  signifi- 
cance and  value  may  thus  be  given  to  a  term  per- 
fectly familiar  to  us,  in  daily  use,  but  of  which  we 
had  not  felt  the  full  force,  from  inadvertency  as  to 
its  derivation. 

When  the  root  of  a  word  refers  us  to  a  Greek  or 
Latin  piimitive,  our  conception  of  its  sense  must, 
unless  we  are  somewhat  versed  in  these  languages, 
be  comparatively  dim  and  imperfect,  since  we  can- 
not verify  the  meaning  by  comparing  the  term  with 
that  wliich  it  represents.  A  dictionary  of  sufficient 
extent  to  furnish  the  derivation  of  words,  then  be- 
comes a  friendly  instructor,  for  the  time,  directing  us 
to  the  information  which  we  wanted.  The  use  of 
such  a  dictionary,  therefore,  becomes  indispensable 
to  all  pupils  who  are  of  sufficient  age  and  capacity 
to  perform  the  etymological  part  of  word-exercises ; 
and  to  the  advanced  student  and  the  teacher  its 


72  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

value  is  inexpressible.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  only  re- 
liance, to  all  who  are  not  skilled  in  ancient  and  mo- 
dern languages,  for  a  critically  correct  interpretation 
and  use  of  words.* 

Form  of  Exercise.  —  In  writing  the  roots  of 
complex  words,  the  principal  object  of  attention, 
with  young  pupils,  is  the  entire  separation  of  the 
root  from  the  suffix ;  as  the  mechanical  tendency 
of  ear  and  eye,  in  consequence  of  the  habit  form- 
ed by  early  training  in  orthography  and  syllabi- 
cation, is  to  present  words  divided  not  according 
to  their  derivation,  but  their  style  in  oral  and 
written  spelling.  The  etymological  part  of  w^ord- 
exercises,  should  always  contain  an  exact  presen- 
tation of  the  enth'e  root  of  every  word,  whether 
written  on  the  blackboard,  on  the  slate,  or  on 
paper. 

Note.  —  The  apparent  awkwardness  of  the  com- 
bination of  letters  thus  presented  to  the  eye,  is  no 
objection  to  the  practice  recommended.  On  the 
contrary,  it  serves  to  aid  a  distinct  impression  on  the 
mind,  as  to  the  fact  which  is,  for  the  moment,  before 
it ;  and  the  previous  careful  training  in  written  spel- 
ling and  syllabication,  in  the  forms  which  have  been 
suggested,  will  always  afford  a  sufficient  guaranty 
for  the  correctness  of  habit  in  the  ordinary  forms  of 
writing. 

\ 

^  The  full  plan  of  exercises  in  etymological  ana- 
lysis, including  all  the  component  elements  of 

*  The  octavo  editions  of  Worcester  and  Webster,  are  suffi- 
cient for  all  the  ordinary  wants  of  students  and  teachers,  in  re- 
gard to  etymology.  Webster's,  in  particular,  is  very  full,  and 
highly  instructive,  in  this  branch.  Reid's,  formerly  mentioned,  is 
peculiary  convenient  for  school  use. 


ETYMOLOGICAL    ANALYSIS.  73 

words,  may  be  exemplified  thus,  on  the  words 
Instruction  and  Destruction : 

Prefix.      Root.  Suffix. 

In-         -struct-  -ion. 

Signification^  in,          build,  act,  or  condition. 

De-        -struct-  -ion. 

Sign,  down,  (un)        build,  act,  or  condition. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers.  —  The  extent  to  which 
exercises  on  the  roots  of  words  may  be  carried,  can 
be  best  decided,  in  all  cases,  by  the  teacher  at  the 
time  of  instruction.  Classes  too  young  for  the  use 
of  a  large  dictionary,  may  have  the  roots  of  words 
inscribed  for  them,  by  the  teacher  or  an  advanced 
pupil,  on  the  blackboard.  All  pupils,  however,  who 
are  of  sufficient  age  to  be  taught  etymology,  should 
be  required  to  commit  to  memory,  and  exemplify 
fully,-  the  prefixes  and  suiRxes  of  words.  No  class 
in  any  school  can  be  deemed  so  far  advanced  as  not 
to  be  greatly  benefited  by  a  daily  lesson  in  etymolo- 
gy ;  and  of  all  word-exercises  the  etymological  ana- 
lysis should  always  be  a  prominent  part.*  The 
most  accomplished  adult  student  will  find  it  a  high- 
ly useful  as  well  as  pleasing  exercise,  to  prescribe 
himself  a  daily  task  of  this  description.  At  no  slight- 
er cost  can  the  student  of  the  English  language  at- 
tain to  that  perfect  mastery  over  it,  which  Milton 
attributes  to  the  true  scholar,  whose  words,  he  says, 
trip  about  him  like  so  many  nimble,  airy  servitors, 


*  The  preparation  of  a  daily  lesson  on  a  given  number  of 
words  from  the  successive  columns  of  a  dictionary,  for  successive 
years,  is  a  light  tax  to  pay  for  an  "intelligent,  correct,  and  appro- 
priate use  of  our  own  language ;  and  in  few  other  ways  can  the 
hours  of  youth  be  more  usefully  or  agreeably  occupied.  The  ety- 
mological analysis  of  the  principal  words  of,  at  least,  every  read- 
ing lesson,  in  every  class  of  a  school,  should  be  regarded  as  form- 
ing an  indispensable  part  of  the  preparation  for  the  reading  of  the 
lesson. 

7 


74  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

and  fall  obediently  and  aptly  into  their  places.  The 
unequalled  copiousness  of  our  language,  makes  a 
perfect  command  over  its  resources  the  business  of 
many  years,  and  demands,  accordingly,  an  attention 
somewhat  proportioned  to  that  which,  in  the  estab- 
lished routine  of  education,  is  assigned  to  the  noble 
languages  of  antiquity.  Fortunately,  the  education- 
al world,  both  in  England  and  America,  is  awaken- 
ing to  a  juster  sense  than  formerly  prevailed,  of  the 
value  of  our  own  language,  as  the  most  effectual 
means  of  mental  culture  and  discipline,  whether  we 
regard  the  acquirements  of  the  individual,  or  the 
business  of  social  hfe. 

To  the  teacher,  in  the  daily  toils  of  the  school- 
room, no  exercise  can  be  suggested,  on  which  the 
young  mind  seizes  with  such  avidity,  as  that  of  trac- 
ing the  meaning  of  w^ords  by  their  derivation.  A 
few  oral  explanations,  given  as  an  experiment,  will 
be  sufficient  to  convince  any  who  have  not  aheady 
adopted  this  part  of  grammatical  instruction,  of  its 
immense  value  and  its  living  interest.  After  an 
earnest  and  arduous  day's  work  on  other  subjects, 
classes  quite  young  will  turn  with  eagerness  to  this. 
The  dawning  consciousness  of  both  its  own  wants 
and  its  own  powers,  stimulates  the  young  mind  to 
inquire  into  and  investigate  everything  connected 
with  language,  which  it  instinctively  feels  to  be  its 
peculiar  scope  for  action  and  progress.  The  con- 
sciousness of  expanding  and  deepening  knowledge, 
which,  in  this  direction,  rewards  every  advancing 
step,  is  ample  remuneration  for  every  effort. 


EXERCISE  V. 
SIGNIFICATION  AND  MEANING  OF  WORDS. 

Introductory  Eayplunations. — Derivation,  or  etymo- 
logical analysis,  enables  us  to  trace  a  word  to  the 
original  signification  and  consequent  value  of  all  its 
constituent  parts.  We  are  thus  put  in  command  of 
the  true  meaning  and  full  power  of  the  words  which 
we  wish  to  use,  and  are  prepared  to  deal  with  them 
not  as  mere  counters,  but  the  sterling  current  coin 
of  language,  whose  value  we  ourselves  appreciate, 
and  others  feel  and  acknowledge. 

The  word  instruction,  already  analysed,  we  may 
take  as  a  convenient  example  of  the  nature  and  use 
of  the  particular  form  of  word-exercise  on  which  we 
are  now  ready  to  enter.  The  etymological  analysis, 
by  which  the  word  was  reduced  to  its  component 
parts,  showed  that  of  these  there  were  no  fewer 
than  three ;  of  which  the  first  represented  the  idea 
expressed  by  the  word  m ;  the  second  suggested  the 
conception  of  building;  and  the  third  the  notion  of 
condition,  ox  process.  With  this  key  to  the  significa- 
tion of  all  its  parts,  we  arrive  at  that  of  the  whole 
word,  —  so  richly  suggestive,  so  full  of  thought,  and 
so  monitory  to  the  mind  both  of  pupil  and  teacher, 
—  that  instruction  is  a  process  of  building  in.  The 
literal  and  original  application  of  the  word,  in  its 
primary  sense,  with  all  its  beautiful,  figurative  signi- 
ficance, thus  standing  revealed  and  open  to  us,  we 
have  it  in  our  power  to  determine  its  secondary 
sense,  —  its  exact  and  appropriate  meaning,  in  the 

(75) 


76  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

current  usage  of  our  own  day,  —  according  to  which 
it  is  applied  to  designate  tlte  didactic^  or  doctrinal 
part  of  education. 

But  both  these  words,  instruction  and  education, 
belong  to  the  part  of  our  language  wliich  consists  of 
words  originally  Latin.  They  are  no  part  of  the 
primitive  vernacular  tongue  of  our  childhood,  —  the 
vocabulary  to  which  we  must  always  refer,  as  a 
standard  and  a  guide,  in  interpreting  or  endeavoring 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  other  words  of  our 
language,  —  those  which  belong  to  the  written  usage 
of  authors  and  of  books.  We  have  yet  another  step 
to  take,  before  Ave  could  answer  the  child's  question, 
"  What  does  *  instruction '  mean  ?  "  —  The  answer  to 
this  question  will  bring  out  a  word  yet  more  fami- 
liar, one  which  belongs  to  the  plain  language  of  early 
hfe  and  of  every-day  use,  and  therefore  gives  the 
meaning  more  fully,  more  definitely,  and  more  clear- 
ly. The  word  in  question  is  "  teaching."  Beyond 
this  word  we  feel  that  we  do  not  need  to  go,  and, 
indeed,  cannot  go,  in  endeavoring  to  simplify  and 
explain ;  because,  in  the  use  of  this  term,  we  have 
come  home  to  our  original  native  dialect,  in  which 
the  thing  signified  is,  from  early  association,  imme- 
diately suggested  by  the  word. 

The  primitive  signification  of  a  word,  is,  in  gene- 
ral, a  sure  guide  to  its  true  import  and  proper  appli- 
cation. But,  as  in  the  progress  of  the  history  of  a 
language,  national  development  is  ever  modifying 
the  sense  of  old  terms,  as  well  as  introducing  ncAV 
ones,  the  mere  original  signification  of  a  word,  is  not 
always  a  security  for  its  precise  meaning  and  pro- 
per use,  or  its  actual  acceptation  at  a  given  period.* 


*  Students  and  teachers  who  are  accustomed  to  refer  to  that 
noble  monument  of  erudition  and  indefatigable  labor,  Richard- 
son's New  l^ictionary  of  the  English  Language,  will  have  re- 
marked that  the  author  of  the  present  volume  ventures  to  differ 


SIGNIFICATION    AND    MEANING    OF    WORDS.  77 

Hence,  to  interpret  or  to  employ  language  appro- 
priately, it  is  not  enough  that  we  know  the  idea 
primarily  suggested  by  any  word:  we  must  know 
the  precise  shade  of  thought  to  which  it  is  applied, 
in  good  usage,  in  our  own  day,  —  a  stage  of  attain- 
ment which  we  can  reach  by  no  other  means  than 
extensive  reading,  attentive  study,  and  good  instruc- 
tion, followed  by  careful  practice  in  writing  and  con- 
versation. 

Exercise.  —  The  practical  part  of  the  exercise 
on  the  signification  and  meaning  of  words,  is 
performed  by  (i.)  mentioning,  if  the  word  is  coni- 
poundy  the  parts  of  which  it  consists ;  (2.)  if  it  is 
complex^  naming  and  explaining  the  prefix  and 
suffix^  and  the  root^  with  its  derivation;  (3.)  stating 
the  primary  sense,  or  the  literal  and  original  sig- 
nification of  the  whole  word;  (4.)  its  secondary 
sense,  or  its  precise  meanings  in  the  actual  contem- 
poraneous use  of  language ;  (5.)  giving  an  exam- 
ple^ in  a  phrase^  or  a  sentence^  of  its  appropriate 
application^  as  follows : 


from  that  eminent  authority,  on  the  distinction  made  between  the 
terms  signification  and  meaning.  A  practical  manual,  such  as  this, 
affords  no  room  for  discussions,  were  it  proper  to  offer  here  a  de- 
fence of  the  distinction  observed,  in  the  above  and  preceding  in- 
stances, in  these  pages.  But  to  the  teacher,  at  least,  it  may  be 
permitted  to  say,  that  his  office,  as  a  matter  of  experience,  in  the 
explanation  of  words,  often  is,  to  deduce  and  evolve,  through  the 
successive  stages  of  philological  and  psychological  associations, 
the  meaning,  or  actual  sense  of  a  word  from  its  primary  and  literal 
sense, —  and  from  its  signification,  (s/^'/i-power,)  or  mere  etymologi- 
cal reference,  to  educe  its  secondary  sense,  in  the  form,  perhaps,  of 
a  metaphorical,  or  even  highly j^^ura^a'e,  interpretation.  The  signi- 
fication is  the  letter;  the  meaning  is  the  spirit;  and,  as  in  higher 
and  sacred  relations,  the  one  may  "  kill ",  while  the  other  "  gives 
life." 

7# 


78  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

"INSTRUCTION".  Analysis:  Prefix,  in-, 
signifying  in  or  into ;  Suffix,  -ion,  signifying  con- 
dition or  process ;  Root,  -struct-,  derived  from  the 
Latin  language,  and  signifying  building'.  —  Orig- 
inal Signification,  process  of  building"  in. —  Ac- 
tual Meaning,  teaching,  or  didactic  information. 
—  Examples  :  "  Take  fast  hold  of  Instruction ; 
let  her  not  go ;  keep  her ;  for  she  is  thy  life." 
"  Some  things  we  learn  from  instruction ;  some, 
from  experience."  "  Instruction  is  but  a  limited 
part  of  education."  * 

Suggestions  to  Students.  —  The  adult  student  who 
wishes  to  trace  satisfactorily  the  successive  changes 
which  the  sense  of  many  of  the  words  of  our  lan- 
guage has  undergone,  in  the  progress  of  years,  will 
find  great  benefit  from  the  use  of  Hichardson's  "  Dic- 
tionary of  the  English  Language,"  t  in  which  these 
modifications  are  distinctly  shown,  and  exemplified 
by  quotations  from  eminent  writers,  in  all  the  pro- 
minent successive  stages  of  English  literature.  Re- 
ference, however,  to  any  dictionary  of  sufiicient  size 
to  contain  copious  quotations,  —  as,  for  example, 
Johnson's,  in  quarto  form,  —  will  be  adequate  au- 
thority for  deciding  or  sanctioning  the  actual  use  of 
words.  Worcester's  Critical  Dictionary,  and  the 
quarto  edition  of  Webster,  may  also  be  mentioned 
as  very  exact  and  reliable  guides  in  such  investiga- 
tions. 


*  The  exercise  on  the  signification  and  meaning  of  words, 
when  performed  by  classes,  should  extend  to  all  the  words  as- 
signed as  the  daily  lesson  in  etymological  analysis. 

t  Republished  by  Butler  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 


EXERCISE  VI. 
DEFINITION  OF  WORDS. 

Introductory  Explanations.  —  The  processes  de- 
scribed in  preceding  exercises,  have  prepared  the 
student  to  trace  the  primary  sense,  or  original  mean- 
ing, of  words,  and  thence  to  deduce  their  secondary 
sense,  or  cuiTcnt  acceptation  and  actual  use.  There 
remains  yet  another  step  to  be  taken,  to  enable  him 
to  satisfy  his  own  mind  as  to  what,  in  any  given 
case,  is  the  precise  import  and  full  value  of  a  word, 
as  used  by  standard  writers,  or  to  aid  him  in  decid- 
ing on  what  word  he  ought,  in  any  instance,  to  em- 
ploy as  the  exact  expression  of  his  own  thought. 
This  result  is  obtained  by  "  defining  "  the  particular 
word  which  is  the  subject  of  his  inquiries;  —  or, 
rather,  we  should  say,  by  defining  the  idea  which  he 
wishes  to  apprehend  or  to  express. 

The  signification  (or  sign-power)  of  a  word,  de- 
pends, as  we  have  seen,  on  its  derivation,  but  its 
present  meaning  and  actual  use,  on  the  practice  of 
reliable  contemporary  writers.  When  it  becomes 
necessary  to  explain,  or  account  for,  the  meaning,  we 
have  to  go  behind  the  forms  of  language,  and  define 
the  idea  itself,  which  the  word  represents.  The  cor- 
rect and  clear  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  a  word, 
will,  therefore,  in  some  cases,  depend  on  the  accu- 
racy of  this  mental  process  of  defining.  In  such  cir- 
cumstances, we  appeal  to  the  decision  of  logic,  the 
science  which  takes  cognisance  of  the  process  of 
definition,  as  well  as  of  all  other  forms  of  thought 

C79) 


60  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

consisting  in  the  systematic  exercise  of  the  reason- 
ing faculty,  and  determines  the  applications  of  lan- 
guage to  thought,  by  the  decisions  of  judgment,  as, 
in  such  cases,  the  ultimate  authority. 

We  do  not,  it  is  true,  always  need  the  aid  of  the 
strictly  scientific  process  of  formal  definition,  to  ren- 
der us  competent  to  appreciate  duly,  or  apply  pro- 
perly, the  words  of  our  own  language ;  and  it  is  not 
less  true  that  we  learn  much  of  our  language  by 
rote,  from  merely  observing  the  sense  which  others, 
in  writing  and  speaking,  give  to  the  expressions 
which  they  use.  But  to  the  student  of  language 
this  mere  intuition  is  not  a  systematic  or  a  satisfac- 
tory knowledge,  such  as  education  and  discipline 
demand.  He  wishes  often  to  know,  and  to  know 
with  definite  certainty,  why  a  given  word  expresses 
a  given  idea,  and  how  far  it  is  capable  of  suggesting 
the  precise  shade  of  meaning,  which,  in  any  case,  is 
to  be  assigned  to  it.  To  satisfy  his  mind  on  these 
points,  he  must  not  only  see  into  the  signification 
of  every  syllable  of  the  word,  but  must  have  an 
exact  conception  of  the  idea  which  is  to  be  attached 
to  it,  that  he  may  judge  of  the  correctness  of  his  ap- 
prehension of  the  thought  expressed  by  another,  or 
of  the  fitness  of  a  given  word  to  express  the  thought 
which  he  himself  wishes  to  communicate.  In  these 
circumstances,  the  process  of  definition  is  the  only 
sure  guide  to  a  decision  which  carries  with  it  the 
certainty  of  demonstration. 

Definition,  as  "  a  logical  description,"  is,  simply,  a 
process  of  classification,  which  presents  the  genus,  or 
larger  class,  and  the  species,  or  smaller  class,  to  which 
an  object  or  an  idea  belongs.  The  word  which  de- 
notes the  larger  class,  is  accordingly  called  the  gene- 
ric or  general  term,  and  that  which  denotes  the  small- 
er class,  the  specific  or  differential  term.  Expressed 
in  the  technical  language  of  logic,  definition  is  the 
statement  of  a  subject  by  its  generic  term  in  con- 


DEFINITION    OF    WOUDS.  81 

nection  with  its  specific  difference.  Thus,  in  the 
proposition,  or  sentence,  "  Man  is  a  reasoning  ani- 
mal", "ma7i'\  the  subject,  is  defined  by  the  generic 
or  general  term,  ''  animaV\  and  the  specific  difference 
"  reasoning."  The  idea  of  man  is  thus  presented  in 
its  general  form,  or  larger  classification,  by  the  word 
animal,  the  more  "  comprehensive  "  term,  —  in  con- 
nection with  the  distinctive  conception,  or  more  limit- 
ed classification,  expressed  by  the  word  reasoning,  a 
term  extending  to  closer  detail,  and  hence  denomi- 
nated, in  logic,  the  more  "  extensive  "  term. 

The  process  of  definition  is  sometimes  employed 
to  distinguish  an  individual  from  a  species,  or  from 
a  comparatively  small  class.  Thus,  in  the  sentence, 
"  Cicero  was  an  ambitious  man,"  the  differential  word 
ambitious,  distinguishes  Cicero  from  other  men.  In 
the  sentence,  "  Cicero  was  an  eloquent  orator,"  the 
discriminative  epithet  distinguishes  him  from  other 
orators  merely. 

We  may  now  return  to  the  word  instruction,  which 
we  have  already  analysed  by  derivation,  so  as  to  as- 
certain its  true  meaning  and  proper  use.  To  define 
instruction,  we  should  term  it  didactic  infjrmation ; 
—  i.  e.  information  given  or  received  by  the  process 
of  teaching.  In  this  definition,  the  general  term  is 
information;  the  specific  is  didactic,  or  teaching.  The 
plan  of  written  exercises  in  definition  would,  conse- 
quently, be  exemplified  in  the  following  form. 

Exercise.  —  "  Instruction."  —  Definition  :  — 
Didactic  information ;  or  Information  given  or  re- 
ceived by  the  process  of  teaching. —  General 
Term,  Information;  Specific,  Teaching* 

*  The  exercise  in  definition  is  designed  for  pupils  more  ad- 
vanced than  those  supposed  to  be  occupied  with  the  preceding 
exercises  only,  and  is  meant  to  be  limited  to  those  words  which 
the  pupils  of  a  given  class  might  not  otherwise  so  fully  under- 
stand or  appreciate. 


82  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

Suggestions  to  Students.  —  On  the  importance  of 
exact  definition,  as  indispensable  to  clear  thought 
and  correct  expression,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  dwell, 
at  great  length.  Definition,  we  see,  leads  to  distinc- 
tion ;  and  distinction  leads,  in  turn,  to  discrimination. 
Without  these  aids,  our  ideas  would  often  have  no 
distinctness  of  outline ;  our  thoughts  would  conse- 
quently be  obscure,  and  our  expression  vague  and 
indefinite. 

The  value  of  the  practice  of  defining,  as  an  intel- 
lectual discipline,  is  second  to  that  of  no  other,  in 
the  training  of  the  mind  to  strict  accuracy  in  its 
modes  and  habits  of  action.  It  is,  in  fact,  as  has 
been  mentioned,  a  purely  logical  process,  which  lies 
at  the  foundation  of  distinct  perception,  true  judg- 
ment, and  correct  reasoning.  As  an  exercise  in  lan- 
guage, it  is  of  the  utmost  importance ;  since  it  is  the 
only  reliable  means  of  attaining  to  precision,  force, 
accuracy,  or  propriety  of  expression. 

Students  of  the  highest  standing  in  any  seminary 
in  which  the  study  of  the  English  language  forms  a 
part  of  the  academic  course,  should  make  a  daily 
practice  of  training  themselves  to  exactness  and 
promptness  in  defining ;  so  as  to  become  thoroughly 
prepared  for  the  highest  efforts  of  composition  and 
of  oratory.  As  a  preparation  for  premeditated  or  ex- 
temporaneous speaking,  such  discipline  is  invalua- 
ble. It  accustoms  the  mind  to  decide  instantly,  and 
with  certainty,  on  the  selection  and  application  of 
terms,  wdth  reference  to  clear,  correct,  and  impres- 
sive communication,  and  a  ready  command  of  ap- 
propriate language.* 


*  Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary  excels  in  tbe  fullness  and 
exactness  of  its  definitions,  and  the  useful  information  in  wbich 
it  abounds.  It  will  be  found  an  excellent  source  from  whrch  to 
derive  the  requisite  materials  for  constructing  definitions  in  strict 
logical  form. 


EXERCISE   VIL 
SYNONYMS. 

Introductory  Explaimtions. — The  word  synonyms 
is  derived  from  two  Greek  words,  meaning  common 
desig?iation,  or  coincidence  of  expression.  It  is  ap- 
plied to  two  or  more  words  having  the  same,  or 
nearly  the  same,  signification.  The  careful  study 
and  strict  analysis  of  language,  however,  teach  us 
that  no  two  words  can  be  found,  which  have  pre- 
cisely an  identical  meaning.  The  very  existence  of 
two  separate  words,  called  synonymous,  proves  that 
one  was  not  found  sufiicient,  in  all  circumstances,  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  other ;  —  that  there  was  a 
shade  of  diversity  in  objects,  or  in  ideas,  to  express 
which  there  was  needed  another  word  than  the  one 
which  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  first  in  use. 
Close  examination,  and  a  discriminating  use  of  lan- 
guage, will  always  enable  us,  in  such  cases,  to  detect, 
under  the  general  sameness,  the  specific  difference ; 
— just  as,  on  our  fii'st  introduction  to  a  family  of 
human  beings,  we  may  find  difficulty  in  distinguish- 
ing the  individuals  who  compose  it,  but,  on  more  in- 
timate acquaintance,  we  learn  to  trace  their  differ- 
ences of  form  and  features,  and  thus,  ere  long,  easily 
recognise  every  member.  By  a  similar  act  of  dis- 
crimination, we  trace  distinctions  in  the  sense  of 
words,  which,  at  first  view,  seem  to  have  an  absolute 
identity  of  meaning,  and  are,  accordingly,  classed  as 
"  synonyms." 

The  numerous  resemblances  which  exist  among 

(83) 


84  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

objects,  and  the  consequent  similarity  of  the  ideas 
which  we  form  of  them,  necessarily  produce  a  cor- 
responding approach  to  sameness  in  the  meaning  of 
the  words  by  which  we  express  them.  This  remark 
applies,  with  equal,  and,  sometimes,  greater  force,  to 
the  ideas  and  conceptions  which  we  form  within  the 
mind  itself,  independently,  for  the  moment,  of  exter- 
nal things.  From  the  fact  now  referred  to,  there 
arises  a  great  danger  of  confusion  and  obscurity,  in 
expression.  In  circumstances  nearly  identical,  yet 
somewhat  different,  the  diversity  is  apt  to  escape 
our  notice.  That  diversity,  however,  may  be  of  the 
greatest  moment  to  a  proper  estimation  of  the  case. 
The  detection  of  the  slightest  difference  may  be 
requisite,  in  order  to  draw  the  line  of  discrimination, 
in  thought  and  language,  between  similarity  and  dis- 
similarity, between  truth  and  error,  between  virtue 
and  vice,  between  innocence  and  guilt. 

To  recognise  distinctions  amidst  apparent  resem- 
blance, in  the  meaning  and  use  of  words,  must  be  an 
indispensable  requisite  to  the  right  interpretation  and 
proper  use  of  language, —  the  appointed  means  for 
the  communication  of  thought,  and  the  advancement 
of  intelligence.  It  is  not  less  an  invaluable  aid,  as 
an  exercise  and  discipline  of  mind,  and  the  chief 
means  of  training  it  to  exactness  and  precision  of 
thought, —  the  main  condition  of  success  in  the  dis- 
covery and  exposition  of  truth. 

The  ancient  definition  of  rhetoric,  which  made  it 
consist  in  saying  the  fit  word  in  the  fit  place,  is  pe- 
culiarly suggestive  as  to  the  value  of  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  synonyms.  To  enable  us  to  express 
an  idea  with  precision  and  clearness,  we  must  have 
the  whole  treasury  of  English  words,  lying,  as  it 
were,  before  us,  from  which  to  select  the  one  which 
exactly  expresses  our  meaning, —  presenting  it  fully, 
leaving  no  imperfection  arising  from  want  of  defi- 
niteness,  of  force,  or  of  breadth  of  expression,  in  con- 


SYNONYMS.  85 

sequence  of  which  deficiency,  the  idea  would  stand, 
like  a  mutilated  statue,  deprived  of  some  important 
feature.  Neither  must  the  word  which  we  select, 
suggest  more  than  we  wish  to  communicate.  The 
idea  which  we  would  express,  must  stand  forth  by 
itself,  unembarrassed  by  any  extraneous  and  unne- 
cessary matter,  which  might  tend  only  to  distract  the 
attention,  and  obscure  our  mental  view,  and  conse- 
quently to  create  confusion,  as  to  the  actual  mean- 
ing intended.  Language  is  sometimes  justly  called 
the  dress  of  thought ;  and  this  view  of  it  suggests  the 
lesson  implied  in  the  figurative  definition.  The  well- 
fitting  garment  is  neither  scanty  nor  redundant,  but 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  person  of  the  wearer.  A 
well-chosen  word,  in  like  manner,  is  neither  deficient 
nor  superfluous,  in  the  sense  which  it  conveys.  It 
resembles  what  is  happily  termed,  in  geometry,  a 
"  neat "  demonstration,  in  which  every  part  of  the 
process  comes  forth  clear,  distinct,  and  exact,  —  leav- 
ing no  deficiency,  and  presenting  no  redundancy.  — 
The  discriminating  use  of  synonyms,  renders  expres- 
sion not  merely  perspicuous,  but  luminous,  to  the 
understanding. 

The  primary  exercise  of  collecting  or  enumerating 
synonyms,  may  be  exemplified  in  the  following 
form.* 

Exercise.  —  (i.)  The  Collecting  of  Synonyms. 
The  first  step  in  an  exercise  on  synonyms,  is  duly 
to  collect  all  the  words  which  our  language  fur- 
nishes as  synonymous,  in  any  case,  with  a  given 
word. 

Suggestion  to  Students.  —  To  train  the  mind  to 
promptness  and  self-reliance,  in  this  part  of  the  ex- 

*  A  few  words,  —  nouns,  adjectives,  or  verbs,  —  which  have  the 
largest  number  of  synonyms,  may  be  assigned,  from  the  daily 
reading  lesson  of  a  class,  as  subjects  for  this  form  of  exercise. 


86  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

ercise,  the  student  should  make  it  a  strict  rule  to 
himself  always  to  endeavor  to  call  up,  in  the  first 
place,  all  such  words  as  his  own  mind  can  furnish, 
from  intuition  and  from  memory.  When  he  has 
done  this  act  of  justice  to  his  own  self-culture,  he 
may  then  appeal  to  the  aid  of  the  dictionary,  and 
ransack  its  references,  from  word  to  word,  till  he  has 
exhausted  the  vocabulary  of  the  language,  so  far  as 
concerns  the  synonyms  which  he  wishes  to  com- 
mand.=^ 

Example.  —  "  Action  ",  —  act,  activity,  acting, 
agency;  motion,  momentum,  play;  power,  force, 
energy,  vehemence,  violence,  exertion,  eifort,  effi- 
ciency; practice,  operation,  process,  exercise,  per 
formance,  doing,  deed,  feat,  achievement,  exploit, 
perpetration ;  impetus,  impulsion,  impulse,  incitation, 
impetuosity,  petulance,  incitement,  incentive,  insti- 
gation, influence,  stimulus,  excitation,  excitement, 
agitation,  irritation,  stir,  bustle,  commotion,  ferment- 
ation, perturbation,  ebullition,  struggle,  battle ;  work, 
business,  labor,  toil,  task,  drudgery,  employment,  oc- 
cupation, vocation,  pursuit,  calling,  profession ;  ap- 
plication, diligence,  industry ;  procedure,  proceeding, 
transaction,  job,  attempt,  experiment,  endeavor,  dab- 
bling; gesture,  gesticulation,  antic,  trick;  play,  re- 
creation, game,  sport,  frolic,  diversion,  amusement, 
pastime.t 

Note.  The  synonyms,  m  the  above  example,  are 
grouped  by  semicolons,  according  to  their  nearest 
connections  in  sense,  and  the  nicer  or  broader  shades 

*  Crabb's  Synonyms,  and  other  works  of  similar  character,  will 
be  useful  aids  in  this  part  of  an  exercise  on  words.  But  no  vol- 
ume can  be  named,  which,  for  this  purpose,  is  equal  to  lioget's 
Thesaurus  of  English  Words,  rc-edited  by  President  Sears,  and 
by  Professor  Lincoln,  of  Brown  University. 

t  The  idea  expressed  by  the  primary  word,  in  the  above  enu- 
meration, creates  such  a  multitude  of  synonymous  terms,  by  all 
of  which  it  may  be  represented,  that  only  a  selection  of  the  most 
important  could  be  offered. 


SYNONYMS.  87 

of  meaning  by  which  they  vary  from  one  another. 
This  arrangement  is  designed  to  faciHtate  the  exem- 
phfication  of  subsequent  exercises,  as  well  as  the 
present  and  the  one  immediately  following. 


Exercise.  —  (2.)  Application  of  Synonyms. 
When  the  student  has  collected  all  the  synonyms 
io  a  given  word,  which  occur  to  his  memory,  and 
all  the  additional  ones  derived  from  his  dictionary, 
he  may  proceed  to  exemplify  the  proper  use  of 
them  individually,  by  introducing  each  in  a  phrase 
or  in  a  sentence,  in  which  the  context  is  of  such  a 
character  that  no  other  member  of  the  same  fam- 
ily of  synonyms,  can  be  substituted  for  it,  without 
injury  to  the  form  of  expression,  in  the  whole 
clause  in  which  it  occurs.* 

Example.  —  "  Action  "  :  All  action  implies  motion. 
Act :  The  incendiary  was  detected  in  the  very  act. 
— Activity :  Activity  is  indispensable  to  success  in 
business.  Acting :  A  man  may  be  an  accomplice 
in  crime  without  acting.  — Agency :  He  may  employ 
the  agency  of  others.  — Motion :  The  motion  of  the 
arm  and  hand,  is  a  natural  accompaniment  of  speech. 
— Momentunfi :  The  physicist  will  give  you  the  mo- 
mentum of  a  planet.  — Flay :  The  play  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  machine  is  perfect.  — Power :  The 
power  to  act  does  not  always  accompany  the  poiver 
to  wiU.  — Force :  The  entrance  was  effected  by  main 
force.  — Energy :     A  mind  destitute  of  energy  can  ef- 

*  This  exercise  is  properly  one  of  intuitive  recognition,  merely, 
and  may  be  advantageously  practised,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  even 
the  younger  members  of  a  grammar  class.  It  may  be  diversified 
by  the  teacher  giving  out  sentences  in  which  the  places  for  the 
synonyms  are  left  blank,  to  be  filled  up  by  the  pupil. 


88  EXEUCISES    ON    WORDS. 

feet  little,  either  for  itself  or  for  others.  —  Vehemence  : 
Demosthenes  was  remarkable  for  vehemence  of  utter- 
ance. —  Violence :  War  is  systematic  violence,  sanc- 
tioned by  national  custom.  — Exertion :  Nothing  val- 
uable can  be  acquired  by  a  mind  which  shrinks  from 
exertion. — Effort:  Sloth  cannot  be  shaken  off  with- 
out an  ejbrt.  — Efficiency :  Activity  is  of  little  value, 
unless  it  result  in  efficiency.  — Practice :  The  utility 
of  theory  is  demonstrated  hj practice.  —  Operation: 
The  experiment  proved  an  expensive  ojjeration.  — 
Process :  The  operator  went  through  a  tedious  pro- 
cess. — Exercise :  Passion  may  prevent  the  exercise 
of  reason.  — Performance :  Shame  attends  the  con- 
scious performance  of  a  mean  action.  — Doing :  He 
plainly  saw  the  folly  of  his  clxnngs.  — Deed:  Whether 
praise  or  blame  should  be  bestowed  on  the  daring 
deed,  seems  doubtful.  — Feat :  The  knight  exhibited 
his  prowess  in  an  unrivalled yea^  of  arms. — Achieve- 
ment :  To  conquer  passion  is  a  high  achievement.  — 
Exploit:  The  fame  of  his  exploit  was  spread 
throughout  Christendom.  —  Perpetration  :  The 
thoughtless  youth  was,  ere  long,  tempted  to  the  per- 
petration of  crime.  — Imj^etus :  The  impetus  of  a  mis- 
sile is  diminished  by  distance.  — Impulsion :  The  bar 
of  iron  was  subjected  to  the  three  great  tests  of  ten- 
sion, torsion,  and  imjndsion.  —  Impulse,  imiietuodty , 
petulance:  The  youth  was  actuated  by  impulse 
rather  than  principle,  and  by  impetuosity  rather  than 
true  courage.  He  often  gave  way  to  fits  of  petu- 
lance.— Incitation:  The  incitation  of  ungovemed 
passion  leads  to  many  a  fatal  act.  — Incitement :  The 
desire  of  fame  is,  too  often,  the  sole  incitement  of  the 
warrior.  — Incentive :  The  hope  of  booty  is,  some- 
times, the  incentive  to  battle.  — Instigation :  The 
deed  was  perpetrated  at  the  instigation  of  malice.  — 
Influence :  The  influence  of  a  mother's  tenderness 
he  had  never  felt.  — Stimidus :  He  was  impelled  by 
the  stimulus  of  a  morbid  appetite.  — Excitation :    The 


SYNONYMS.  89 

excitation  of  evil  passions,  stifles  the  voice  of  con- 
science. — Excitement :  In  the  excitement  of  battle, 
humanity  is  lost.  — Agitation :  He  never  betrayed 
the  agitation  of  passion.  — Irritation :  He  was  above 
the  reach  of  paltry  irritation.  — Stir :  The  intelli- 
gence caused  a  great  stir  in  the  crowd.  — Bustle  : 
The  household  was  in  all  the  bustle  of  preparation 
for  a  hasty  departure.  —  Commotion :  The  elements 
were  in  violent  commotio?!.  — Fermentation :  The  con- 
tradictory tidings  kept  the  minds  of  the  people  in  cease- 
less/6^r??^e7^^^^^o?^. — Perturbation:  The  dreaded  ap- 
proach of  the  enemy  threw  the  inhabitants  of  the  town 
into  the  greatest  perturbation. — Ebullition:  The  ebulli- 
tions of  popular  fury  were  absolutely  frightful.  — 
Struggle :  His  was  a  life  of  struggle.  — Battle  :  Lu- 
ther's words  were  so  remarkable  for  their  force,  that 
they  have  been  called  half  battles.  —  Work :  Work 
is  a  primary  want  of  man's  nature.  — Busi?iess :  Busi- 
ness is  but  a  more  imposing  form  of  work.  — Labor : 
Man  was  designed  to  lead  a  life  of  labor,  ( —  Toil: ) 
but  not  of  exhausting  toil.  —  Task :'  The  labor  of  the 
day  is  a  sufiicient  task,( — Brudgery:)  without  the 
addition  of  domestic  drudgery.  — Employment :  It  is 
a  privilege  of  the  rich  to  give  employment  and  remu- 
neration to  the  poor.  —  Occupation:  Feeble  and 
helpless  must  be  that  mind  which  is  not  competent 
to  provide  itself  with  occupation.  —  Vocation :  The 
vocation  of  teaching  ought  to  be  placed  on  the  foot- 
ing of  a  recognised  profession.  — Pursuit :  Of  all  the 
'pursuits  in  which  man  engages,  that  of  pleasure  is, 
sometimes,  the  most  laborious.  — Calling :  He  con- 
scientiously fulfilled  the  duties  of  his  humble  calling. 
— Profession :  He  aspired  to  the  position  of  a  lib- 
eral profession.  — Application :  Too  close  application 
exhausts  both  body  and  mind. — Diligence:  Dili- 
gence alone  can  secure  valuable  acquirements.  — In- 
dustry:  Industry  is  an  indispensable  condition  of 
success  in  life.  — Procedure :  The  procedure  of  the 
8# 


90  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

executive  anthority  was,  in  that  case,  one  of  ques- 
tionable policy.  —  Proceeding:  The  proceedings  of 
the  public  meeting  were  duly  reported.  —  Transac- 
tion :  The  transaction  reflected  no  great  credit  on 
those  who  took  part  in  it.  —  Job :  The  whole  aifair 
turned  out  a  mean  and  disgraceful  job.  —  Attemj^t : 
The  attempt  was  baffled.  —  Exjieriment :  The  expe- 
riment was  satisfactory.  —  Endeavor:  A  life  spent 
without  endeavor,  is  ignoble.  —  Dabbling:  He  lost 
his  property  by  dabbling  in  stocks.  —  Gesture :  The 
action  which  accompanies  human  speech,  is  proper- 
ly termed  gesture.  —  Gesticulation :  The  chattering 
of  monkeys  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  gesticula- 
tion :  *  —  Antic :  The  recitation  of  the  verses  was 
accompanied  by  odd  postures  and  antics.  —  Trick : 
The  tricks  of  trade  are  sometimes  exposed.  —  Flay : 
All  work  and  no  play,  is  proverbially  an  injudicious 
regimen.  —  Recreation :  Recreation  may  justly  be 
termed  a  necessity  of  man's  constitution.  —  Game  : 
The  mind  is  exercised,  as  well  as  entertained,  by  the 
vicissitudes  of  a  game  of  chess.  —  Sport :  The  tiring 
was  done  in  sport.  —  Frolic  :  Fun  and  frolic  need 
guarding  against  excess.  —  Fkversion :  Seasonable 
diversion  relieves  the  depressing  effect  of  assiduous 
grave  application.  —  Amusement :  Quiet  amusements 
relish  longest.  —  Fo^time:  The  masques  and  other 
pastimes  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  served,  at  once,  to 
unbend  and  to  inspire  the  mind. 


*  It  is  a  prevalent  error,  with  American  writers,  to  confound 
the  meaning  of  the  above  terms,  and  use  them  as  strictly  synony- 
mous. For  the  distinctive  and  appropriate  use  of  these  words, 
see  Richardson's  Dictionary.  —  "  Or  what  their  servile  apes  yesli- 
cMlateP  Ben  Jonson.  —  "  The  gesture  of  man  is  the  speech  of  his 
body."     Wilson^  —  quoting  Cicero. 


SYNONYMS.  91 


Exercise.  —  (3.)  DeJimtlo7i  of  Synonyms. 

lExplanatory  Observations.  —  To  students  who  are 
sufficiently  advanced,  the  following  form  of  exercise 
will  be  found  of  great  benefit,  as  regards  a  distinct 
apprehension  of  the  precise  ideas  expressed  by  sy- 
nonymous terms,  and  an  intelligent  appreciation  and 
discriminating  use  of  language.  The  practice  of 
this  exercise  is  designed  to  form  a  guard  against  any 
remissness  of  attention  or  misapprehension  of  ex- 
pression, which  might  lead  to  the  error  of  conceiving 
one  word  to  be  synonymous  with  another,  while  its 
acceptation  was  actually  different.  The  consequen- 
ces of  such  a  mistake  must  necessarily  be  a  misun- 
derstanding and  misinterpretation  of  the  language 
of  others,  or  error  and  confusion  arising  from  our 
own.  The  exercise  now  in  view,  is  a  logical  pro- 
cess of  verification,  by  which  words  occurring  to  the 
mind  as  synonymous,  may  be  brought  to  a  strict 
test,  before  being  accepted  as  such.  A  security  is 
thus  afforded  against  the  numerous  errors  caused  by 
obscurity  and  ambiguity  of  expression,  which  neces- 
sarily tend  to  mislead  the  mind,  and  defeat  the  pur- 
pose of  language. 

The  defining  of  synonyms  requires  the  same  pro- 
cess as  in  the  case  of  other  words,  —  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  generic,  or  general  term,  and  of  one  con- 
taining the  specific  difference.  But  the  proof  of  the 
exactness  of  the  definition,  as  regards  synonymous 
words,  turns  on  this  point,  —  that,  though  all  the 
words  of  any  given  family  of  synonyms,  have  their 
discriminating  shades  of  difference  of  meaning,  from 
the  general  term,  and  from  one  another,  the  state- 
ment of  the  definition,  in  every  instance,  brings  the 
word  into  a  relation  corresponding  to  that  of  species 
to  genus,  when  we  compare  it  with  the  generic 
term,  or  parent  word.     The  process,  then,  of  defin- 


92  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

ing  synonyms,  reduces  itself  to  the  following  brief 
formula. 

Form  of  Exercise.  —  Having  collected  a 
group  of  synonyms  to  be  defined,  select  from 
them  the  word  which  is  the  most  general  and 
comprehensive  in  its  sense,  and,  employ  it  as  a 
generic  term,  by  the  use  of  which,  all  the  others 
may  be  defined,  by  a  statement  of  their  specific 
difference  of  acceptation. 

Remark.  —  If  the  right  word  has  been  selected 
for  the  generic  term,  and  all  the  other  words  of  the 
group  are  really  synonymous,  all  of  them,  when 
brought  to  the  test  of  the  logical  formula,  will  be 
found  to  agree  with  the  primary  in  their  general  cha- 
racter, but  to  differ  from  it,  specifically  ^  and  from  one 
another,  individually. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "Action."  Act,  a  single  action; 
ACTIVITY,  tendency  to  action;  acting,  fact  of  action; 
AGENCY,  medium  of  action :  *  Motion,  action  in 
space;  momentum, yorce  and  velocity  of  action ;  f  play, 
motive,  action:  Power,  capability  o^  ViOXion;  force, 
intensive  action ;  energy,  inward  pmver  of  action ; 
vehemence,  empassioned  force  of  action;  violence, 
excessive  force  of  action;  exertion,  inchoative  action; 
effort,  energetic  tendency  to  action ;  efficiency,  ef- 
fective action :  Practice,  exterior  action ;  operation, 
complex  action;  process,  continuous  action;  exer- 
cise,'2;oZww^ar«/ action;  PERFORMANCE, ^a^a5/e  action; 
Doing,  ordinary  form  of  voluntary  action ;  deed,  ex- 
traordinary form  of  voluntary  action ;  feat,  arduous 

*  The  capital  initial  letter  indicates  the  commencement  of  a 
new  proup  of  synonyms. 

t  The  definitions,  in  some  of  the  examples,  are  modified  by 
reference  to  the  allusions  implied  in  the  examples  adduced  in  the 
exercise  on  the  application  of  synonyms. 


\ 
SYNONYMS. 


action:  achievement,  consummate  action;  exploit, 
illustrious  action;  perpetration,  guilt?/  action:  Im- 
petus, communicated  force  of  action;  impulsion,  j^ro- 
pelling  action;  impulse,  action  o^  feeling ;  impetuos- 
ity, unrestrained  action  o^  feeling ;  petulance,  im- 
patient action  of  feeling :  Incitation,  impelling  ac- 
tion o^  feeling ;  incitement,  m^ral "motive  action;  y^- 
cY.i^TivB,  inflammatory  inciting  action;  instigation, 
stimulating  action;  influence,  tacit  action;  stimu- 
lus, irritating  action ;  excitation,  arousing  action ; 
excitement, ^jrovoctt^we  action;  agitation,  extremely 
excited  action ;  irritation,  unduly  excited  action : 
Stir,  ea;aYe^  action;  bustle,  ostentatious  action;  com- 
motion, commingling  excited  action;  fermentation, 
confused  excited  action;  perturbation,  disturbed  ac- 
tion; ebullition,  violent  commotive  action;  effer- 
vescence, excessive  commotive  action;  struggle,  ob- 
structed action ;  battle,  combative  action :  Work, 
obvious  action;  BVQn^^?>s,intercommunicative  action; 
LABOR,  continuous  strenuous  action;  toil,  excessive 
continuous  action ;  task,  appointed  action  ;  drudgery, 
servile  action;  employment,  5^eczy?c  action;  occupa- 
tion, co?^Zm^^o^/5  5/;cci^c  action ;  vocation,  <2ccw5^om- 
ed  specific  action ;  pursuit,  prosecuting  or  sequent  ac- 
tion ;  CALLING,  designated  ^pursuit,  or  mode  of  indus- 
trial action;  profession,  licensed  scientific  vocation: 
Application,  earnest  attentive  action;  diligence,  sus- 
tained application;  assiduity,  irrolonged  application; 
INDUSTRY,  habitually  continued,  laborious  action:  Pro- 
cedure, course  of  action;  proceeding,  formal  ac- 
tion; TRANSACTION,  specific  busincss  action;  job,  oc- 
casional  action:  Attempt,  intended  action;  experi- 
ment, tentative  action;  endeavor,  aim  of  action; 
dabbling,  insignificant  action :  Gesture,  oratorical 
action;  gesticulation,  bodily  action;  antic,  m^ock 
action :  Trick,  illusive  action :  Play,  relaxing  ac- 
tion; sLEC'R.is.A.iiio'^,  renovating  action;  game,  amusive 
form  of  action;  sport,  inleasurable  action;  frolic, 


94  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

mirthful  ^oiion  \  diversion,  sportive  vicissitude  of  ac- 
tion ;  AMUSEMENT,  entertaining  action ;  pastime,  fes- 
tive action. 


Exercise.  —  (4.)  Discrimination  of  Synonyms, 

Explanatory  Observations.  —  The  practice  of  the 
foregoing  exercise,  is  designed  to  faciUtate  the  ready 
recognition  of  the  relationship,  or  imity  of  significa- 
tion, existing  among  words  that  are  properly  syno- 
nymous, —  so  far  as  that  designation  can,  with  pro- 
priety, be  apphed.  The  exercises  which  follow,  are 
intended  for  the  opposite  effect  of  rendering  the  mind 
critically  acute  in  discriminating  the  specific  and  in- 
dividual differences  of  meaning,  discernible  among 
the  groups  and  pairs  of  synonyms  wliich  may  be 
comprehended  and  defined  under  one  and  the  same 
general  term.  The  former  exercise  led  us  to  consi- 
der the  abstract  idea  which,  as  a  primary  basis,  is 
common  to  all  the  members  of  a  family  of  syno- 
nyms, and  proves  the  justice  of  their  claim  to  a  place 
in  the  household :  the  present  leads  us  to  dwell  on 
their  particular  characteristics,  and  traits  of  differ- 
ence, in  groups,  and  individually,  that  we  may  not 
confound  them  by  too  hasty  or  careless  observation, 
but  recognise  distinctly  the  place  and  the  claims  of 
each.  We  formerly  wished  to  bring  them,  as  nearly 
as  practicable  to  agreement  and  to  unity :  we  now 
wish,  by  narrow  inspection,  to  detect  those  pecu- 
liarties  which  may  make  them  differ  as  widely  as 
possible.  Our  course  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  na- 
turalist who  wishes  to  draw  a  sharply  defined  line 
of  distinction,  between  the  species  of  a  given  genus 
and  the  varieties  of  a  given  species.  He  dwells  on 
the  minutest  points  of  difference,  and,  when  neces- 


SYNONYMS.  95 

sary,  calls  in  the  aid  of  the  microscope  itself,  to  en- 
able him  to  determine,  with  perfect  precision,  the 
exact  form  of  every  distinctive  feature. 

A  similar  process  of  nice  discrimination,  is  requi- 
site, in  order  to  discern  the  diiference  in  the  mean- 
ing of  words  so  nearly  similar  in  signification  as  to 
render  it  difficult,  at  fii'st  sight,  to  recognise  the  pro- 
per distinction  to  be  made  in  interpreting  or  apply- 
ing them.  To  miss,  in  such  cases,  even  the  most 
delicate  shading  or  gradation  of  meaning,  is  to  lose,' 
perhaps,  the  significance  or  the  beauty  of  expres- 
sion, or  a  vital  distinction  in  thought.  An  exact  dis- 
crimination of  synonyms,  is  the  true  test  of  scholar- 
ship and  skill  in  our  own  language,  and  requires  the 
same  assiduous  application  and  thorough  training  by 
which  critical  acumen  is  attained  in  the  study  of  the 
ancient  classics. 

In  attempting  to  discriminate  synonyms,  two  pre- 
liminary processes  are  of  great  moment,  —  derivation 
and  definition.  By  tracing  the  denvation  of  both 
words,  in  cases  of  near  approximation  to  identity  of 
signification  in  any  two,  we  take  one  step,  and,  per- 
haps, a  successful  one,  towards  the  detection  of  an 
original  difierence  in  their  signification,  arising  from 
diversity  in  the  objects  or  ideas  to  which  they  were 
first  applied.  Following  this  suggestive  hint,  the 
mind  seizes  a  distinction  in  thought,  and  recognises 
the  corresponding  discrimination  in  language,  — 
whether  in  tracing  the  sense  of  a  word  employed  by 
another,  or  in  choosing  expression  for  its  own  con- 
ceptions. —  We  may  select  the  synonyms  diversion 
and  recreation,  as  an  illustration  of  the  use  of  ety- 
mological analysis,  in  aiding  us  to  determine  the 
precise  signification  of  words  liable  to  be  used  as 
synonymous.  By  tracing  the  derivation  of  the  form- 
er, we  find  the  primitive  signification  to  be  turning 
aside.  The  term  diversion,  therefore,  suggests  mere- 
ly the  idea  of  turning  aside,  for  relief  from  applica- 


96  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

tion.  The  form  of  action  which  we  substitute  as  a 
rehef  from  wearisome  or  fatiguing  exertion,  is  not 
specified  by  the  word  diversion :  it  may  be  a  salu- 
tary, or  it  may  be  an  injurious  change  of  action :  its 
effects  are  not  intimated.  The  term  recreation,  on 
the  other  hand,  not  only  suggests  the  idea  of  a  change 
of  action,  but  a  salutary,  a  re-creating,  or  renovating 
change. 

The  proper  discrimination,  then,  in  the  interpreta- 
tion or  the  use  of  these  two  terms,  implies  the  re- 
cognition of  a  distinction  founded  on  the  diffei-ence 
of  degree,  —  that  of  less  and  greater,  —  in  their  signi- 
fication ;  the  latter  term  transcending  the  former  in 
the  extent  of  meaning  suggested. 

Another  aid  to  discrimination  in  the  use  of  syno- 
nyms, consists  in  tracing  the  effect  of  definition  on 
terms  closely  allied  in  signification.  Defining,  when 
correctly  performed,  as  a  process  of  thought  logical- 
ly embodied  in  language,  necessarily  gives,  along 
with  the  generic  term,  in  any  case,  the  specific  or 
the  individual  difference  of  character  in  its  theme  or 
subject.  It  involves,  therefore,  the  mental  distinc- 
tion  which  that  difference  implies,  and  thus  furnish- 
es the  means  of  making  the  proper  discrimination  in 
the  expression  of  that  distinction. 

The  definition  of  synonyms,  as  such,  therefore, 
consists  in  nothing  more  than  presenting  words  of 
similar  signification,  defined  in  pairs,  for  the  purpose 
of  being  discriminated,  by  their  specific  or  individual 
differences  of  meaning,  in  the  manner  exemi)lified 
in  the  following  formula. 

Form  of  Exercise.  —  From  the  whole  num- 
ber of  words  collected  as  synonyms  to  a  given 
word,  select  the  two  loJiich  come  nearest  to  iden- 
tity of  signification. —  (1.)  Define  each  by  what- 
ever word  in  the  group  has  the  most  general  and 
comprehensive  meaning.  —  (2.)  Compare  the  two 


SYNONYMS.  97 

terms  which  express  the  specific  difference^  as  given 
in  the  words  of  the  definition ;  and  state  the  dis- 
Unction  in  thought,  founded  on  the  difference  of 
things,  by  which  the  sense  of  each  synonym  is 
to  be  discriminated.  —  (3.)  Exemplify  the  discri- 
mination, in  one  or  more  sentences,  as  may  be 
best  adapted  to  a  clear  exposition  of  its  accm-acy, 
in  consequence  of  the  justness  of  the  distinction 
on  which  it  rests,  and  the  actual  difference  of 
things  which  calls  for  the  distinction.* 

EXAMPLES. 

.Act,  Deed. 

Definition  :  Act,  a  single  action ;  Deed,  a  volun- 
tary action.  Distinction,  founded  on  the  differ- 
ence of  general  and  particular.  Discrimination  : 
"  The  action  which  was  extolled  as  a  good  deed,  was 
but  an  act  of  necessity." 

Force,  Energy. 

Definition  :  Force,  active  power ;  t  Energy,  in- 
herent power.  Distinction,  founded  on  the  differ- 
ence between  external  and  internal.  Discrimina- 
tion :   "  The  power  of  the  monarch  was  felt  in  the 


*  The  above  prescribed  form  of  exercise,  combining  rhetorical 
and  logical  with  grammatical  discipline,  is  designed,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  for  advanced  students,  and  is  presented  here  with  a 
view  to  complete  the  plan  of  a  series  of  exercises  on  words.  It 
may  be  omitted,  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  particular  classes. 

t  The  distinction  will  sometimes  be  rendered  more  precise  by 
selecting,  for  the  moment,  as  a  generic  term,  the  leading  word  ia 
a  group  of  synonyms,  though  it  may  not  be  so  generally  compre- 
hensive as  the  primary  word  of  the  whole  theme.  In  the  descend- 
ing scale  of  distinctions,  a  word  of  more  comprehensive  significa- 
tion than  another,  becomes  virtually,  to  it,  a  generic  term,  in 
definition. 

9 


98  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

energy  of  his  character,  rather  than  in  the  force  of 
his  will." 

Exertion,  Effort. 
Definition  :  Exertion,  exercise  of  energy ;  Effort, 
exercise  o^  force.  Distinction,  founded  on  the  dif- 
ference between  internal  and  external  activity.  Dis- 
crimination :  The  laborer  was  successful  in  his 
exertions  to  support  his  family.  The  fireman  suc- 
ceeded, by  an  almost  superhuman  effort,  in  saving 
the  hfe  of  one  of  the  children." 

Feat,  Exploit. 
Definition  :  Feat,  arduous  action ;  Exploit,  illus- 
trious  action.  Distinction,  founded  on  the  differ- 
ence hetween  personal  and  social  xel^iions.  Discri- 
mination :  "  He  was  a  youth  who  delighted  not  less 
in  feats  of  personal  strength,  than  in  daring  exphits 
on  the  battle-field." 

Incitement,  Incentive. 
Definition  :  Incitement,  normal  moral  motive ; 
Incentive,  abnormal  moral  motive.  Distinction, 
founded  on  the  difference  between  regular  and  ir- 
regular action.  Discrimination  :  "  Eloquence  some- 
times proves  an  incentive  to  passion,  rather  than  in- 
citement to  duty." 

Indtation,  Instigation. 
Definition  :  Indtation,  impelling  motive ;  Instiga- 
tion, violently  impelling  motive.  Distinction,  found- 
ed on  the  difference  of  degree  as  less  or  more.  Dis- 
crimination :  "Ambition  proves,  in  some  men,  a 
healthful  indtation  of  the  noblest  energies  of  the 
soul ;  in  others,  a  maddening  instigation  of  its  worst 
passions." 

Agitation,  Commotion. 
Definition  ;  Agitation,  extremely  excited  action ; 


SYNONYMS.      ?  99 

Commotion,  excited   commingling   a:ction.  '  Distinc- 
tion, founded  on  the  difference  bet^en  simple  and  ^ 
complex  materials.     Discrimination  :     "  The  agita- 
tion and  violence  of  the  speaker,  excited  a  sympa- 
thetic commotion  in  his  audience." 

Work,  Labor. 

Definition:  Work,  active  exertion;  Labor,  conti' 
nwms  exertion.  Distinction,  founded  on  the  dif- 
ference between  occasional  and  habitual  action.  Dis- 
crimination :  "  Work,  in  moderation,  is  a  pleasing 
form  of  exercise ;  labor,  to  the  weak,  becomes  weari- 
some toiir 

Employment,  Occupation. 

Definition  ;  Lmploijment,  specific  action ;  Occupa^ 
tion,  continuous  specific  action.  Distinction,  found- 
ed on  the  difference  between  occasional  and  habitual 
exertion.  Discrimination  :  *'  The  nian  found  em- 
phyment  at  occasional  jobs,  but  still  wished  for  a 
more  regular  mode  of  occupation!' 

Vocation,  Calliyig. 

Definition  :  Vocation,  accustomed  occupation ; 
Calling,  designated  industrial  occupation.  Distinc- 
tion, founded  on  the  difference  of  general  and  par- 
ticular. Discrimination  :  "  Men  who  attempt  to 
live  without  a  vocation,  often  fall  victims  to  the  en- 
nui of  indolence  or  the  seductions  of  vice.  Better 
to  toil  in  the  humblest  calling,  than  stagnate  in  inac- 
tivity." 

Pursuit,  Profession. 

Definition  :  Pursuit,  habitual  occupation ;  Pro- 
fession, occupation  followed  by  a  body  of  licensed 
members.  Distinction,  founded  on  the  difference 
of  general  Q.nd  particulw.  Discrimination:  "Many 
members  of  the  learned  professions  find  time  for  the 
cultivation  of  science,  literature,  or  art,  or  for  en- 
gaging in  some  other  favorite  pursuit.'' 


LCISES    ON    WORDS. 


*.r£"ft*  CQ'uHTi    ^^^Jmplication,  Diligence. 

ir*f  OF^^I^ti^Tm^i^^  Application,  attentive  and  earnest 
v^f^^^f'ij^'Tnligence,  sustained  activity.  Distinction, 
founded  on  the  difference  between  zeal  and  perse- 
verance. Discrimination  :  "  The  power  of  applica- 
tion and  the  habit  of  diligence,  are  the  guaranties  of 
success  in  business." 

Diligence,  Industry. 
Definition  :  Diligence,  sustained  activity ;  Indus- 
try, habitual  laborious  activity.  Distinction,  found- 
ed on  the  difference  between  meyital  and  bodily  ex- 
ertion. Discrimination  :  "  The  diligence  of  the  stu- 
dent, and  the  industry  of  the  farmer,  have,  equally, 
their  rewards." 

Diligence,  Assiduity. 
DefinitioiW  Diligence,  sustained  activity ;  Assi- 
duity, 2:>rolong^  activity.  Distinction,  founded  on 
the  difference  of  degree,  as  regards  continuance. 
Discrimination  :  "  His  diligence  in  all  his  varied 
pursuits  in  private  life,  and  his  assiduity  in  the  dis- 
charge of  every  official  duty,  were  equally  charac- 
teristic of  the  man." 

Attempt,  Endeavor. 
Definition:  Attempt,  intended  action;  Endeavor, 
continued  aim  of  action.  Distinction,  founded  on 
difference  of  degree,  as  to  continuance.  Discrimi- 
nation :  "  Desultory  attempts  will  never  accomphsh 
the  task  assigned  to  persevering  endeavor.*' 

Play,  Sport. 
Definition  :  Play,  cheering  recreation ;  Sport, 
mirthfid  recreation.  Distinction,  founded  on  dif- 
ference oi  degree,  as  to  hilarity.  Discrimination: 
"  The  joyous  and  buoyant  spirit  of  childhood,  easily 
passes  from  play  to  sport  and  frolic." 


EXERCISE    VIIL 
SUPPLYING  ELLIPSES. 

Exercise.  —  A  useful  supplement  to  the  pre- 
ceding forms  of  exercises  on  words,  consists  in 
the  attempt  to  supply  appropriate  terms,  purpose- 
ly omitted  from  the  context  of  a  given  passage, 
so  as  to  require  of  the  student  an  attentive  regard 
to  the  adaptation  of  language  to  thought,  in  va- 
ried circumstances  of  expression.   , 

Note.  —  This  exercise  demands,  in  many  instances, 
the  preparation  furnished  in  the  previous  exercises 
on  definition  and  synonyms,  and  will  always  involve 
a  useful  review  of  these,  and  afford,  at  the  same 
time,  a  test  by  which  the  student's  previous  progress 
may  be  ascertained. 


Suggestion  to  Teachers.  —  In  selecting  matter  for 
such  exercises  as  are  now  proposed,  the  teacher  will, 
of  course,  be  guided  by  the  capacity  of  his  pupils. 
The  character  of  the  exercise  in  view,  is  such  as  to 
adapt  it  to  all  classes  of  students,  from  the  most  ad- 
vanced to  the  very  youngest  engaged  in  the  study  of 
grammar.  Judicious  selection,  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  will  furnish  sufficient  exercise  for  the  for- 
mer, in  passages  requiring  close  thought  and  deliber- 
ate reflection,  as  well  as  a  considerable  degree  of 
skill,  in  the  process  of  supplying  ellipses ;  while  the 
9*  (101) 


102  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

f 

work  prescribed  tcf  tlie  latter,  will  be  of  that  compar- 
atively easy  de^^fiption,  which  requires  nothing  more 
than  intuitive  observation,  and  is  merely  intended  as 
a  discipline  to  aid  in  forming  a  ready  ear  for  expres- 
sion.— Narrative  and  descriptive  writings,  are,  by 
their  very  character,  which  runs  so  often  into  unex- 
pected detail,  unsuitable  for  the  material  of  exercises 
in  the  form  to  which  we  now  advert.  But  essays, 
and  other  didactic  compositions,  which  abound  in 
general  sentiment,  always  furnish  appropriate  scope 
for  the  exercise  of  replacing  expressions  which  the 
general  tendency  of  thought  evinced  in  the  context, 
will,  in  part,  suggest,  when  they  have  been  removed, 
for  the  time,  by  the  teacher,  in  prescribing  a  practical 
lesson  of  this  description. 

Suggestion  to  Students.  —  The  exercise  in  supply- 
ing elhpses,  is  necessarily  of  such  a  form  as  to  ren- 
der it  inapplicable,  in  strictness  of  practice,  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  student  who  is  prosecuting  the 
study  of  language,  as  a  matter  of  self-culture.  An 
exercise  nearly  equivalent,  however,  may  be  substi- 
tuted in  such  cases,  —  that  of  reading  a  paragraph 
from  a  standard  author,  and  then  endeavoring  to  ex- 
press his  sentiment  in  the  same  words,  as  far  as 
memory  will  serve  to  reproduce  them.  On  compar- 
ing his  own  composition  with  that  of  the  author,  the 
student  will  usually  find,  in  addition  to  more  or  less 
variation  from  the  original  thought,  a  difference  in 
the  forms  of  expression,  arising  from  a  different  se- 
lection of  words.  The  greater  force,  clearness,  or 
appropriateness  of  the  language  of  the  author,  will 
afford  the  intended  lesson  in  choice  of  expression. 

Examples.  —  The  following  paragraphs  are  selected 
from  essays  by  Clarendon,  Addison,  Johnson,  Savile, 
and  Colton. 


SUPPLYING    ELLIPSES.  10* 


Exercise  in  supplying  the  amission  qf{l.)  Nouns. 

"  He  that  hath  been  brought  up  from  his 

in  the  of  God,  and  hved  suitably  to  that 

,  learns  more  from  affliction,  than  he  had 

done,  all  his  before.     That  presented  all 

liis  defects  to  him,  in  a  true  mirror :  he  discerned  his 

and  his  in  their  own  , 

which  appeared  before  to  him  only  in  the  light  of 

and 

"  We  should  probably  find  much  better  in 

our  pursuits,  if,  before  we  are  too  solicitous,  and  set 
out  upon  any  ,  we  would  well 

weigh  and  consider  the  true        of  the         which  we 
desire, — whether  it  be  indeed  worth  all  that 
we  shall  be  put  to,  and  all  the  we  are  likely 

to  spend  in  obtaining  it." 

"  Happiness  is  deceitful  as  the  calm  that  precedes 
the  ,  smooth  as  the  on  the 

of  the  cataract,  and  beautiful  as  the  rainbow,  that 
smiling  daughter  of  the  ;  but,  like  the 

in  the  desert,  she  tantalizes  us  with  a  that 

creates,  and  that  destroys."     "  To  am- 

bition she  sends  ;  to  avarice,  ;  to 

love,  ;  to  revenge,  :  alas  !  what  are  these, 

but  so  many  other  names  for  and  ?  " 

(2.)  Adjectives. 

"  To  advise  the  ,  relieve  the  , 

comfort  the  ,  are  duties  that  fall  in  our  way, 

every  day  of  our  lives." 

"  If  unlearned  and  ordinary  men  raise  themselves, 
with  very  assistance  from  nature,  to  a 

and  height  of  reputation  and  honor,  by  their 

,  untaught  wisdom,  and  judgment, 

what  flights  would  such  men  make,  with 


104  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

industry,  if  liberally  endowed  witli  the  advantages 
of  nature  I " 

"  Are  we  pleased  with  the  commerce  and 

society  of  and  cities,  or  with  the 

pleasures  of  the  country  ?     Do  we  love  palaces 

and  houses,  or  take  delight  in  groves  and 

woods  or  gardens  which  teach  nature  to  pro- 

duce more  fruits  and  flowers  and  plants  than  her 
own  store  can  supply  her  with  ?  —  All  this  we  owe 
to  peace." 

"  I  know  that  reflections  on  death  are  apt  to  raise 
and  thoughts  in  minds  and 

imaginations ;  but,  for  my  own  part,  though 
I  am  always  ,  I  do  not  know  what  it  is  to 

be  ,  and  can  therefore  take  a  view  of  nature 

in  her  and  scenes,  with  the  same  pleas- 

ure as  in  her  most  and  ones." 

(3.)    Verbs. 

"  When  ambition  one  way,  interest  an- 

other, inclination  a  third,  and,  perhaps,  reason  con- 
trary to  all,  a  man  is  likely  to  his  time  but 
ill,  who  has  so  many  difierent  parties  to  ." 

"  When  I  upon  the  tombs  of  the  great, 

every  emotion  of  envy  in  me ;  when  I 

the  epitaphs  of  the  beautiful,  every  inordinate  de- 
sire ;  when  I  with  the  grief  of  parents 
upon  a  tombstone,  my  heart  with  compassion ; 
when  I  the  tomb  of  the  parents  themselves,  I 
the  vanity  of  grieving  for  those  whom  we 
must  quickly                ." 

"  It  has  been  in  all  ages,  that  the  advan- 

tages of  nature  or  of  fortune  have  veiy 

little  to  the  promotion  of  happiness ;  and  that  those 
whom  the  splendor  of  their  rank,  or  the  extent  of 
their  capacity  have  upon  the  summits 

of  human  life,  have  not  often  any  just  occa- 


SUPPLYING    ELLIPSES.  105 

sion  to  envy  in  those  who  up  to  them  from 

a  lower  station." 

"  The  ill-natured  man  himself  a  large  field 

to  in ;  he  those  failings  in  human 

nature  which  the  good-natured  man  would 
a  veil  over ;  at  vices  which  the  other 

or  ,  utterance  to  reflections  which 

the  other  ,  indifferently  over  friends 

or  enemies,  the  person  who  has 

him,  and,  in  short,  at  nothing  which  may 

his  character  as  a  wit." 

"  We  already  ,  in  some  measure,  the  charms 

of  novelty,  and  the  delight  which 

from  the  contemplation  of  objects  new,  grand,  and 
beautiful.     Let  us  ,  then,  if  we  can,  the  pleas- 

ing sensations  we  shall  ,  the  high  trans- 

ports we    shall  ,  when  other   and   unseen 

worlds  shall  be  to  our  view,  and  all  the  glo- 

ries of  the  celestial  paradise  on  our  wonder- 

ing eyes.  —  Such  a  felicity,  even  in  prospect, 
the  mind,  and  it  with  emotions  which,  wliile 

it  ,  it  cannot  ." 

Elliptical  Exercise  on  ^nonyms. 

It  forms  a  useful  variety  of  exercise  to  combine, 
with  the  practice  of  supplying  ellipses,  the  exempli- 
fication of  synonyms,  by  adopting  a  theme  which  re- 
quires a  discrimmating  application  of  synonymous 
terms,  in  a  progressive  series,  regarding  intensity  of 
expression,  —  as  in  the  following  example. 

"  The  artist's  juvenile  attempts  reflected  [1]  on 
his  talents.  Had  he  been  ambitious  merely  of  a  [2] 
,  he  would  have  courted  the  society  of  persons 
of  [3]  .  His  productions  might  thus  have  been 
in  [4]  for  a  while,  and  he  might  have  been  grati- 
fied with  a  transient  [5]  .  But  his  aspirations  were 
those  of  a  true  lover  of  art :  he  chose  the  path  of 


106  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

quiet  diligence  and  assiduous  application.  His  [6] 
advanced  with  his  years.  In  early  manhood,  he 
had  already  attained  to  an  enviable  [7]  .  He 
was  held  in  universal  [8]  for  his  noble  personal 
qualities,  not  less  than  for  his  artistic  talent.  Previ- 
ous to  his  removal  to  the  metropolis,  he  was  in  high 
[9]  for  the  excellence  of  his  portraits,  some  of 
which,  from  the  [10]  of  those  whom  they  represent- 
ed, served  to  add  to  the  artist's  [11]  .  His  [12] 
soon  extended  abroad ;  and,  ere  his  death,  he  had 
acquired  a  world-wide  [13]  .  His  name  is  in- 
vested with  the  [14]  of  triumphant  genius ;  and  the 
lovers  of  art,  in  all  countries,  do  [15]  to  his  mem- 
ory." 

[1]  credit,  [2]  name,  [3]  note,  [4]  vogue,  [5]  noto- 
riety, [6]  reputation,  [7]  distinction,  [8]  honor,  [9]  re- 
pute, [10]  popidarity,  [11]  celebrity,  [12]  fame,  [13] 
renown,  [14]  glory,  [15]  homage. 


EXERCISE  IX. 
VARIATION  OF  EXPRESSION. 

Introductory  Explanations,  —  The  English  lan- 
guage is  derived  from  so  many  different  sources, 
that  it  greatly  excels  in  copiousness.  Its  wealth  of 
words,  however,  is  often  the  very  cause  of  that 
embarrassment  which  the  young  composer  feels  in 
attempting  to  give  appropriate  expression  to  his 
thoughts.  Our  synonymous  terms  are  so  numerous, 
and  approach  each  other  so  nearly  in  sense,  that  no 
slight  degree  of  attainment  in  critical  judgment  and 
skill,  is  needed,  in  many  instances,  to  enable  us  to 
decide  with  certainty  on  the  choice  of  expression. 
A  discriminating  and  exact  adaptation  of  language 
to  thought,  while  it  is  thus  comparatively  difficult,  is 
one  of  the  most  desirable  accomplishments  which 
the  discipline  of  assiduous  cultivation  can  yield.  A 
long-continued  training  in  the  discrimination  of  sy- 
nonyms, is,  in  this  relation,  the  student's  best  gene- 
ral reliance  for  adequate  attainments. 

There  is  one  branch,  however,  of  the  study  of 
words,  which  is  founded  on  distinctions  so  obvious 
as  to  give  it  a  peculiarly  interesting  character  in 
connection  with  etymology,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  render  it  more  easy  of  attainment  than  others. 
It  is  one,  also,  which,  while  it  affords  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  the  acutest  discrimination  and  most  ma- 
ture judgment,  is  accessible,  to  a  great  extent,  to 
the  youngest  student  of  language.  It  regards  the 
difference  existing  between  the  two  great  primary 

(107) 


108  EXEKCISES    ON    WORDS. 

sources  of  our  language,  —  that  which  may  be  term- 
ed the  Franco-Latm,  or  Latin  modified  by  transmis- 
sion through  the  French;  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  or 
Saxon  modified  by  the  dialect  of  the  Angles.  These 
various  elements,  combined  with  others  of  subordi- 
nate character,  prominent  among  which  is  the  Da- 
nish language,  constitute  the  chief  features  in  the 
present  form  of  the  English  language.  Composed 
of  so  many  different  elements,  the  English  is,  ne- 
cessarily, a  language  very  irregular,  in  its  grammati- 
cal forms,  and  very  difficult  in  construction,  but  not 
less  remarkably  copious,  and  peculiarly  expressive. 
It  derives  breadth  and  solidity  from  the  character  of 
its  Latin  source,  freedom  and  vivacity  from  the 
French,  and  primitive  force  and  poetic  freshness 
from  its  Anglo-Saxon  and  other  Gothic  sources.  By 
these  last-mentioned  traits  of  its  origin,  it  adds  to 
the  massive  character  of  the  Latin  language  some- 
thing of  the  spirit  and  versatility  of  the  Greek ;  and 
while,  by  blending  all  these  diversified  elements,  it 
necessarily  loses  somewhat  of  the  original  excel- 
lences of  each,  it  perhaps  transcends  them  all  in 
adaptation  to  the  treatment  of  most  subjects  in  the 
vast  range  of  human  thought. 

Success  in  English  composition,  depends,  to  a 
great  extent,  on  a  distinct  perception  of  the  effect  of 
different  subjects  on  the  character  of  expression,  as 
regards  the  sources  whence  it  is  derived.  Abstract 
and  general  forms  of  thought,  expressed  in  English, 
must  be  clothed  in  words  in  which  Latin  etymology 
prevails;  as  that  language,  by  its  constitution  and 
character,  furnishes  the  largest  amount  and  greatest 
variety  of  general  terms,  and  is  thus  best  adapted  to 
the  expression  of  abstract  ideas.  Subjects,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  a  practical  and  familiar  character,  if 
appropriately  treated,  are  presented  in  the  vernacu- 
lar Anglo-Saxon  forms  of  our  language,  which  abound 
in  idioms,  demanding  the  use  of  particular  and  con- 


VARIATION    OF    EXPRESSION.  109 

Crete  terms,  and  refer  directly  to  things  and  actions, 
and  their  quahties  as  connected  with  them.  ]\lixed 
subjects,  which  introduce  both  general  and  particu- 
lar, abstract  and  concrete  ideas,  are  properly  dis- 
cussed in  terms  which  are  drawn  from  both  of  the 
original  sources  of  the  language,  in  proportions  de- 
pending on  the  comparative  equality  or  preponder- 
ance of  either  form  of  thought. 

"We  find,  accordingly,  that  good  usage,  in  English 
writing,  associates  words  of  Latin  etymology  with 
the  style  of  composition  adopted  in  the  language  of 
philosophic  theories,  theoretical  expositions,  doctrinal 
discussions,  rhetorical  essays,  scientific  discourses, 
and  other  abstract  and  generahzed  modes  of  thought; 
but  the  homely  Saxon  vocabulary  with  ordinary  af- 
fairs, domestic  life,  daily  occuiTcnces,  familiar  let- 
ters, and  common  conversation.  The  primitive  cha- 
racter of  the  Saxon  renders  it,  also,  the  fitting  style 
of  narrative  and  descriptive,  though  not  of  didactic 
poetry.  Oratory  and  poetry,  in  their  grandest  forms, 
range  through  both  of  these  fields,  as  Avell  as  all 
others  within  the  domain  of  language.  This  trait, 
accordingly,  is  a  striking  characteristic  in  the  style 
of  Burke  and  Chatham,  and  in  that  of  Milton  and 
Shakspeare. 

A  degree  of  this  high  attainment,  however,  is  in- 
dispensable to  every  person  who  wishes  to  possess 
the  humble  merit  of  using  his  own  language  aright, 
even  in  conversation  and  in  letter-\vriting.  But  to 
the  student  who  would  become  "  a  scholar,  and  a 
ripe  and  good  one  ",  in  the  noble  language  which,  as 
a  professional  man,  he  is  to  have  in  daily  use,  for 
the  best  and  noblest  purposes  of  communication,  a 
perfect  command  over  all  its  resources,  is  a  worthy- 
object  of  the  highest  ambition  and  the  most  assi- 
duous application. 

10 


110  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

Exercise.  —  (1.)  One  useful  form  of  exercise 
on  the  expressive  power  of  words,  as  dependent 
on  the  source  whence  they  are  derived,  consists 
in  translating  a  given  passage,  in  which  terms  of 
Latin  origin  prevail,  into  w^ords  purely  Saxon.  — 
(2.)  Another  exercise  serves  the  opposite  pur- 
pose, of  translating  an  idiomatic  and  vernacular 
passage  from  Anglo-Saxon  into  Latinized  phra- 
seology. —  (3.)  A  third  course  of  exercises,  con- 
sists in  composing'  sentences  with  purely  vernacu- 
lar words  predominating.  —  (4.)  A  fourth,  in  the 
opposite  process  of  composing  in  Latinized  dic- 
tion ;  and  (5.)  a  fifth,  in  composing  sentences 
and  paragraphs  in  which  the  phraseology  inter- 
mingles both  these  forms  of  our  language.* 

Suggestion  to  Teachers.  —  A  useful  exercise  for 
young  pupils,  in  this  department  of  practical  gram- 
mar, may  be  found  by  prescribing  a  didactic  para- 
graph, —  from  any  reading-lesson  not  too  difficult,  in 
its  style  of  expression,  for  the  understanding  of  a 
given  class,  —  to  be  turned  into  "  plainer  "  language, 
with  more  or  less  aid,  as  may  seem  necessary,  al- 
lowed from  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  This  exercise 
not  only  contributes  to  skill  in  language,  but  greatly 
facilitates  the  comprehension  of  ideas,  and  is  an  ex- 
cellent preparation  for  an  intelligent  and  appropriate 
style  of  reading,  as  regards  the  right  expression  of 
the  sense  of  what  is  read.  Few  exercises  have  more 
power  than  this,  to  call  forth  the  judgment,  and  de- 
velope  the  understanding.  None  serves  more  ef- 
fectually to  keep  the  mind  in  the  mood  of  wakeful 


*  The  extracts  presented  for  the  Analysis  of  Composition,  in 
subsequent  pages  of  this  manual,  will  furnish  convenient  mate- 
rial for  exercises  in  Variation  of  Expression. 


VARIATION    OF    EXPEESSION.  Ill 

attention  and  lively  interest  in  relation  to  the  sub- 
ject which,  for  the  time,  is  presented  as  the  ground- 
work of  thought. 

Suggestio7is  to  Students.  —  All  the  great  writers  to 
whom  we  are  referred  as  models  in  the  use  of  words, 
are  characterised  by  one  common  trait  of  critical 
judgment  and  skill,  —  the  exact  adaptation  of  ex- 
pression to  thought ;  their  style  ever  varying  with 
the  character  of  the  subject  of  their  composition. 
The  greatest  authors  are  least  marked  by  the  me- 
chanical vice  of  mannerism.  They  preserve  their 
personal  identity  in  style,  but  vary,  with  the  utmost 
ease,  the  complexion  of  their  language  with  that  of 
their  subject. 

A  language  so  copious  as  ours,  affords  little  room 
for  any  apology  for  a  narrow  uniformity  of  style. 
No  language  is  so  well  entitled  to  insist  on  the  great 
canon,  that  expression  should  ever  wear  the  living, 
shifting  hue  of  thought.  The  genius  of  our  tongue 
offers  to  him  who  would  express  himself  worthily, 
on  any  subject,  the  largest  choice  of  utterance,  from 
the  heights  of  poetic  inspiration,  to  the  humblest 
strains  of  ordinary  life. 

A  due  attention  to  the  obligation  which  ever  lies 
on  writers  of  the  English  language,  to  embrace  the 
liberal  opportunities  which  it  offers  them  of  adapting 
their  uses  of  words  to  all  varieties  of  occasion,  is  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  moment  to  the  formation  of 
style.  The  taste  of  our  day  demands  the  freest  scope 
for  expression.  It  forbids  the  stately  regularity  of 
even  our  best  classic  essayists  of  the  past,  as  a  mo- 
del. But  the  license  sometimes  arising  from  a  mis- 
interpretation of  freedom,  leads,  too  frequently,  to 
the  fatal  mistake  that  wild  irregularity  is  inspired 
originality,  or  hardened  mannerism  independent  in- 
dividuality, or  that  low  familiarity  is  pure  Saxon. 

The  careful  study  of  authors,  as  models  of  style, 
is  of  great  value,  if  rightly  directed.     To  catch  the 


112  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

spirit,  not  the  manner,  of  a  writer,  should  be  the  stu- 
dent's aim ;  to  take  every  author  as  a  model  in  that 
in  which  he  excels,  as  a  pei-vading  effect,  —  not  in 
his  turns  of  expression  and  favorite  words.  Adopt- 
ing the  true,  liberal  interpretation  of  the  influence 
of  example,  the  young  wiiter  may  avoid  every  evil 
of  imitation,  while  he  acquires  simplicity  from  Addi- 
son, dignity  from  Johnson,  ease  from  Goldsmith,  sub- 
limity from  Burke,  plainness  from  Locke  or  Frank- 
lin, eloquence  from  Macaulay,  strength  and  grandeur 
from  Webster,  elegance  from  Everett,  and  pliancy 
and  grace  from  L'ving. 

Johnson,  however,  in  relation  to  our  present  sub- 
ject,—  the  choice  of  expression  from  the  two  great 
sources  of  our  language,  —  may  be  fairly  mentioned 
as  a  writer  who  carries  to  extreme  the  use  of  Latin 
phraseology,  applying  it  indiscriminately  to  all  sub- 
jects, and  thus  rendering  his  style  heavy  and  unin- 
teresting, to  a  degree  which  leaves  the  Kambler,  in 
our  day,  undisturbed  on  the  shelf,  or  causes  him  to 
be  read  with  a  listless  attention,  which  we  ascribe 
to  the  dulness  of  the  writer.  Goldsmith,  on  the 
other  hand,  from  his  fondness  for  familiar  expres- 
sion, falls,  sometimes,  below  the  dignity  of  a  gene- 
ral theme ;  and,  when  writing  on  an  elevated  or  ab- 
stract subject,  disappoints  alike  the  mind  and  the 
ear,  by  dropping  suddenly  from  a  noble  height  and 
extent  of  ideal  survey,  to  an  illustration  compara- 
tively low  and  narrow.  But  Addison,  with  his  fine 
perception  and  disciplined  taste,  exemplifies  that 
perfect  command  of  expression  which  enables  him 
to  mould  his  language  at  will ;  and,  in  his  beautiful 
essays,  at  one  moment  to  expatiate  in  the  widest 
scope  of  elevated  and  excursive  thought,  and,  at  an- 
other, to  dwell  on  the  homeliest  circumstances  of 
daily  life,  in  equally  appropriate  but  totally  different 
forms  of  diction.  Johnson  has  not  a  little  of  the  mag- 
niloquence of  an  ambitious  public  speaker.     Gold- 


VARIATION    OF    EXPEESSION.  113 

smith  occasionally  falls  into  a  phraseology  which  sa- 
vors too  much  of  the  company  with  which  he  often 
condescended  to  associate.  Addison  writes  as  a 
man  of  general  culture,  who  cames  with  him,  eveiy- 
where,  the  trained  discernment  and  refined  taste  of 
a  scholar,  blended  with  the  ease  and  dignity  of  a 
gentleman. 

Among  the  writers  of  our  own  country,  Franklin 
forms  an  instructive  example  of  an  easy  command 
of  both  the  great  elements  of  English  expression,  in 
the  perfect  propriety  and  excellent  adaptation  of 
language  with  which  he  writes  on  general  subjects 
connected  with  morals  and  politics,  and  the  peculiar 
facility  with  which  he  comes  down  to  the  humblest 
affairs  of  daily  experience  in  domestic  and  indivi- 
dual life ;  —  passing  from  the  one  to  the  other  of 
these  styles,  w^ithout  an  efibrt,  and  never,  for  a  mo- 
ment, betraying  a  lapse  of  critical  judgment,  or  a 
fault  in  taste.  His  style  has  not  the  charm  of  polish- 
ed elegance  which  attracts  us  to  Addison ;  but  its 
perfect  simplicity  and  entire  freedom  have  an  in- 
fluence scarcely  inferior. 

A  distinguished  example,  nearer  to  our  own  day, 
in  whom  we  trace  the  same  discriminating  sound- 
ness of  judgment,  and  a  yet  nobler  mastery  over  all 
forms  of  our  language,  with  an  apparently  uncon- 
scious purity  of  taste,  and  a  felicitous  power  of  adapt- 
ing expression  to  every  elevated  form  of  thought,  we 
find  in  our  great  national  orator,  Webster.  As  we 
trace  the  successive  pages  of  one  of  his  discourses, 
on  whatever  occasion,  we  find  no  false  swell  of 
style,  no  parade  of  lofty  diction.  The  words  which 
he  employs,  are  those  which  we  hear  daily  in  intel- 
ligent conversation,  or  read  in  the  productions  of 
chaste  and  classical  wiiters, — but  always  the  most 
fitting  to  his  subject;  and,  even  in  the  highest  flights 
of  his  oratory,  there  is  a  manly  plainness  of  expres- 
sion from  which  he  never  departs. 
10* 


114  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

Were  it  proper,  here,  to  enter  on  a  critical  dis- 
cussion of  the  merits  of  our  Uving  writers,  some  might 
be  named  who  are  destined  to  hold  the  highest  place, 
as  classic  models  of  cultivated  and  expressive  lan- 
guage, in  pure  and  noble  forms.  But,  to  the  young 
American  student  of  the  English  language,  it  may- 
suffice  to  say,  that,  happily  for  his  proficiency  in  the 
art  of  expression,  he  is  surrounded  by  the  most  in- 
structive and  inspiring  examples,  urging  him  to  ac- 
quit himself  worthily  in  the  pursuit  of  that  excel- 
lence which  is  the  crown  of  earnest,  assiduous  en- 
deavor. 


EXERCISE   X. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

Introductory  Explanations.  —  The  systematic  study 
of  "words,  as  part  of  a  course  of  practical  exercises  in 
language,  extends  properly  beyond  the  sphere  of 
grammar  to  the  first  stages  of  rhetoric.  The  value 
of  even  a  single  word,  depends  not  merely  on  its 
grammatical  adaptation  to  the  expression  of  mean- 
ing but  its  fitness,  also,  to  the  character  of  the  idea 
which  it  represents,  as  tinged  by  feeling  or  colored 
by  imagination.  These  relations  of  language  are 
relinquished  by  the  grammarian  to  the  charge  of  the 
rhetorician ;  and,  to  complete  the  study  of  words,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  investigate  their  rhetorical 
character,  as  elements  of  expression  in  the  utterance 
of  the  various  moods  of  the  human  mind,  resulting 
from  the  influences  exerted  upon  it  by  the  laws  of 
association.  These  subject  it  to  a  sympathetic 
action,  responsive  to  the  agency  of  surrounding  ob- 
jects, of  whose  predominating  characters  it  always, 
when  true  to  its  office,  reflects  the  local  coloring. 
Like  the  fabled  cameleon  of  old,  or  the  veritable 
familiar  lizard  of  our  Southern  States,  it  takes  the 
hue  of  the  objects  over  which  it  passes;  and,  when 
it  clothes  itself  in  language,  the  integument,  if  ap- 
propriate, is  so  transparent,  that  the  original  tint  of 
the  coloring  surface  shines  through  to  the  eye. 

The  suggestive  power  of  words  depends,  to  a 
great  extent,  on  the  emotions  which  they  excite  in 
conjunction  with  the  thoughts  which  they  awaken ; 

(115) 


116  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

and  the  vividness  of  these  emotions  is  always  pro- 
portioned to  the  graphic  power  of  imagination,  which 
gives  form  and  color  to  the  mental  picture.  Lan- 
guage thus  often  uses  a  tlu-eefold  power  in  enkind- 
ling sentiment,  —  thought,  imagination,  and  feeling, 
—  by  the  presentation  of  a  single  word  happily  cho- 
sen. 

To  appreciate,  therefore,  the  value  of  words,  the 
student  must  be  aware  of  their  power  in  aU  the  va- 
rious relations  which  they  fulfil.  He  must  form  a 
true  idea  of  the  place  which  they  occupy  in  the  whole 
field  of  expression ;  and  to  attain  this  knowledge,  he 
must  become  competent  to  analyse  language  in  the 
different  forms  which  it  assumes  in  the  various  styles 
of  composition,  arising  from  diversity  of  character  in 
the  subjects  of  thought.  A  course  of  close  critical 
reading  and  systematic  analysis,  accordingly,  is  an 
indispensable  aid  to  the  exercise  of  that  discernment 
which  practice  alone  has  the  power  of  rendering  in- 
tuitive, as  regards  the  aptness  of  words  to  do  their 
great  work  of  prompting  the  mind,  and  suggesting 
trains  of  consecutive  thought. 

The  following  extract  from  Duncan,  may  serve  as 
an  example  for  the  analysis  of  composition,  as  an 
exercise  on  words,  when  it  is  practised  with  a  view 
to  forming  a  critical  decision  on  the  merits  of  a  piece, 
in  regard  to  the  author's  choice  of  expression. 


"  This  is  truly  the  glad  season  of  the  year.  Wher- 
ever we  turn  our  eyes,  Nature  wears  a  smile  of  joy, 
as  if,  freed  from  the  storms  and  the  cold  of  winter, 
she  revelled  in  the  luxury  of  spring.  The  lengthen- 
ing day,  the  increasing  warmth  of  the  air,  and  the 
gradually  deepening  green  of  the  awakened  earth, 
excite,  in  every  breast,  a  lively  sense  of  gratitude, 


ANALYSIS    OF    COMPOSITION.  117 

and  pleasingly  affect  the  imagination.  A  walk 
among  the  woods  or  the  fields,  in  a  calm  spring  day, 
when  the  trees  are  bursting  forth  into  beauty,  and 
all  the  land  is  echoing  with  song,  may  well  soothe 
the  stormiest  passions,  and  insphe  that '  vernal  de- 
light', which  is  '  able  to  drive  away  all  sadness  but 
despair.'  The  mind  sympathises  with  the  joy  of  in- 
animate nature,  and  rejoices  to  behold  the  reviving 
beauty  of  the  earth,  as  if  itself  had  escaped  from  a 
period  of  gloom,  to  bask  in  the  sunshine  of  hope  and 
enjoyment. 

"  The  joys  of  spring,  as  felt  or  sung  by  poets  and 
other  ardent  lovers  of  nature,  are  familiar  to  us. 
They  form  the  burden  of  many  a  poetic  strain,  and 
excite  to  many  a  meditative  reverie.  They  have 
inspired  enthusiasm  and  deep  delight,  ever  since 
there  was  an  eye  to  witness,  or  a  mind  to  feel,  the 
harmony  and  loveliness  of  this  gorgeously  arrayed 
and  '  breathing  world.'  They  are  the  source  of  ex- 
quisite emotion  to  every  mind  in  which  dwells  a 
sense  of  beauty  and  creative  design.  They  also 
light  the  brow  of  care,  and  bring  back  the  flush  of 
health  and  hope  to  the  pale  and  wasted  cheek.  And 
not  only  by  the  rich  and  the  enlightened,  —  by  the 
children  of  luxury  and  refinement,  —  are  the  inde- 
scribable delights  of  this  season  deeply  felt  and  val- 
ued ;  spring  is  also  a  time  of  increased  enjoyment  to 
the  poor.  It  fills  the  inmates  of  many  an  humble 
dwelling  with  gladness,  and  makes  even  desponding 
poverty  smile,  and  hope  for  better  days. 

"  There  is  something  in  the  flowery  sweetness  and 
genial  warmth  of  spring,  that  kindles,  in  the  rudest 
bosom,  feelings  of  gratitude  and  pleasure.  The  con- 
trast to  the  cold  and  desolation  of  winter,  is  so  strik- 
ing and  agreeable,  that  every  heart,  unless  it  be  har- 
dened by  the  direst  ignorance  and  crime,  is  melted 
to  love  and  pious  emotion ;  and  breatliings  of  deep- 
felt  adoration  escape  from  the  most  untutored  lips. 


118  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

Tlie  carols  of  the  ploughman,  as  he  traverses  the 
field,  the  live -long  day,  and  turns  up  the  fresh  soil, 
seem  to  bespeak  a  hghtsome  heart,  and  evince  the 
joyousness  of  labor.  The  shepherd,  as  he  sits  upon 
the  hill-side,  and  surveys  his  quiet  flock,  with  its 
sportive  companies  of  lambs,  —  those  sweetest  em- 
blems of  innocent  mirth, — feels  a  joy  and  calm  satis- 
faction, that  is  heightened  by  the  recollection  of  the 
vanished  snow-storms  of  recent  winter,  and  of  all 
the  anxieties  and  toils  of  his  peculiar  charge.  Even 
the  hard-working  mechanic  of  the  village  or  town, 
shares  the  general  gladness  of  the  season.  As  he 
strolls  in  sweet  relaxation  into  the  glittering  fields, 
or  along  the  blossoming  hedgerows  and  lanes,  haply 
supporting  with  his  hand  the  tottering  footsteps  of 
his  child,  or  carrying  the  tender  infant  in  his  arms, 
he  breathes  the  freshening  air,  treads  the  reviving 
turf  beneath  his  feet,  and  inhales  the  first  faint  per- 
fumes, and  listens  to  the  first  melodies  of  the  year, 
with  an  enjoyment  that  his  untaught  powers  of  ex- 
pression cannot  describe." 

Exercise.  —  A  complete  or  exhaustive  critical 
analysis  of  composition,  implies  a  threefold  pro- 
cess, referring  to  the  elements  of  logic^  rhetoric, 
and  grammar.  A  practical  exercise  of  this  de- 
scription, exemplified  in  application  to  the  pre- 
ceding extract,  would  be  arranged  as  follows : 

(1.)     Logical  Analysis, 

"The  Theme",  or  Subject.— (I.)  This  branch 
of  the  exercise  commences  with  a  statement  of 
the  themc^  or  groundwork  of  the  whole  composi- 
tion, and  contemplates,  separately,  the  nature  and 
character  of  the  subject^  as  a  matter  of  thought, 
—  independently,  for  the  moment,  of  the  senti- 


-*c.ALYSIS    OF    COMPOSITION.  119 

ments  to  which  it  gives  rise,  or  the  language  in 
which  these  are  expressed. —  The  theme,  or  sub- 
ject, of  the  piece  before  us,  may  be  fully  stated 
in  the  phrase.  The  pleasures  of  spring. 

(II.)  "  Topics."  —  The  next  object  of  atten- 
tion, in  this  process  of  analysis,  are  the  topics^  or 
heads,  under  which  the  successive  thoughts,  in 
the  developement  of  the  subject,  are  arranged., 
These  are,  in  the  instance  under  our  notice,  as^ 
follows :  (1.)  The  general  aspect  of  Nature^  in 
spring.  This  topic  occupies  the  first  two  sen- 
tences of  the  piece,  and  the  first  half  of  the  third. 
—  (2.)  The  general  effect  of  the  season  on  the  hu- 
man mind.  This  topic  extends  through  the  re- 
mainder of  the  first  paragraph.  —  (8.)  The  effect 
on  different  classes  of  men,  —  (a)  the  poet,  (b)  the 
lover  of  nature,  (c)  the  care-worn  and  the  invalid, 
(d)  the  rich,  (e)  the  poor,  (f)  the  uncultivated,  (g) 
the  ploughman,  (h)  the  shepherd,  (i)  the  mechanic. 
These  subordinate  topics  occupy  the  second  and 
third  paragraphs. 

(III.)  The  "Method",  or  principle  of  order, 
by  which  the  successive  topics  are  arranged. — 
In  the  case  before  us,  we  perceive  the  method  to 
be  that  of  the  developement  of  the  general  into 
the  particular',  and  the  order  of  cause  and  effect ; 
as  we  have  first  presented  to  us  a  glance  at  the 
general  aspect  of  spring,  —  next,  an  enumeration 
of  some  particulars  ;  then,  the  effects  produced  by 
spring,  as  a  cause  of  feeling  in  man. 

(I v.)  The  "Scope",  or  design  of  the  whole 
composition,  —  which,  in  the  present  instance, 
we  find  to  be,  The  genial  effect  of  spring  on  man. 


120  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

(2.)     Rhetorical  Analysis. 

(I.)  "  Ideas." —  Thus  far,  the  matter,  or  mate- 
rial, of  the  composition,  has  been  under  consider- 
ation; and,  having  traced,  logically,  the  nature 
and  relations  of  the  subject,  we  are  prepared  to 
examine,  rhetorically,  the  character  of  the  ideas 
or  thoughts,  to  which  the  subject  has  given  rise 
by  its  developement  in  the  mind  of  the  author, 
and  to  form  a  critical  judgment  of  their  appro- 
priateness to  his  theme,  and  their  adaptation  to 
the  purpose  of  effective  expression.  We  dwell 
on  them  now,  therefore,  not  with  reference  to 
their  purely  intellectual  character  or  value,  as 
portions,  of  a  sequence  or  train  of  thought,  but 
as  adapted,  more  or  less  successfully,  by  their 
complexion  and  coloring,  to  the  writer's  view  of 
his  subject,  and  accommodated  to  correspondent 
effect  in  language.  —  The  ideas  embodied  in  the 
passage  under  review,  when  thus  examined  in 
detail,  as  to  their  rhetorical  value,  we  observe  to 
possess  a  truthfulness,  a  vivacity,  and  a  beauty, 
which  are  happily  consonant  with  the  subject, 
and  which  naturally  lead  to  corresponding  forms 
of  expression. 

(11.)  "  Eloquence."  —  The  next  point  for  con- 
sideration, in  rhetorical  analysis,  is  the  degree  of 
success  which  the  writer  has  attained  in  giving 
effect  to  his  ideas,  by  the  ivipression  which  his 
combinations  of  thought  and  language,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  happy  adaptation  of  the  one  to  the 
other,  produce  upon  our  minds.  We  inquire, 
now,  not  into  the  thoughts  merely,  nor,  as  yet, 
into  the  style  of  language,  but  rather  into  the 
moulding  of  the  former  by  the  latter,  as  more  or 


ANALYSIS    OF    COMPOSITION.  121 

less  skilfully  accomplished,  and  constituting  what, 
in  the  technical  nomenclature  of  rhetoric,  is  term- 
ed eloquence^  —  a  result  corresponding  to  those 
which,  in  graphic  art,  are  designated  by  the  terms 
"  effect"  and  "  expression."  In  written  composi- 
tion, however,  an  impressive  eloquence  resolves 
itself  into  the  life  which  is  infused  into  language, 
when  it  combines,  in  its  suggestive  action,  the 
play  of  imagination  and  of  feeling  with  the  in- 
fluence of  thought,  and  when  sentiment  conse- 
quently comes  forth  embodied  in  clear  and  well- 
defined  forms,  clothed  with  associations  of  grace, 
or  humor,  or  passion,  at  the  will  of  the  writer.  — 
Viewed  in  this  relation,  w^e  should  regard  the 
author  of  the  passage  under  analysis  as  having 
attained  to  the  degrees  of  "eloquence",  or  ex- 
pressive effect,  which  may  be  designated  by  the 
terms  graceful  and  pathetic.  These  traits,  also, 
as  well  as  those  indicated  under  the  head  of 
*^  Ideas ",  are  in  true  harmony  with  the  subject 
of  the  piece,  and  naturally  flow  from  it,  in  the 
sympathy  of  the  mind  with  the  object  of  its  con- 
templation. The  correspondence  of  every  cha- 
racteristic point,  in  the  whole  treatment  of  the 
theme,  with  the  vein  of  sentiment  involved  in 
the  subject  itself,  is,  in  rhetoric,  the  demonstra- 
tion of  the  writer's  success. 

(III.)  "  Style."  —  Our  next  object  of  atten- 
tion, in  rhetorical  analysis,  is  the  character  of  ex- 
pression, as  involving  a  degree  of  regard  to  orna- 
ment. We  now  contemplate  language,  as  de- 
tached, for  a  moment,  from  the  relation  which  it 
bears  to  a  union  with  thought,  and  endeavor,  by 
critical  estimation,  to  decide  its  value  in  the  scale 
of  beauty,  by  its  effect  on  taste  and  imagination. 
11 


122  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

We  regard  it  as  an  artistic  product,  —  as  a  quali- 
ty not  so  much  inherent  in  the  writer's  subject 
or  modes  of  thought,  as  infused  into  his  diction, 
by  his  own  design,  and  his  skill  in  moulding  his 
forms  of  expression.  Contemplated  in  this  light, 
the  author  before  us  seems  well  entitled  to  the 
praise  of  successful  effort,  as  regards  refinement 
and  elegance;  while  yet  he  is  nowhere  charge- 
able with  any  attempt  to  adorn  his  language  with 
a  merely  artificial  grace.  In  these  respects,  also, 
he  obeys  the  requisitions  of  sound  critical  judg- 
ment and  good  taste,  which  keep  his  style  in  har- 
mony with  his  subject.  An  ungraceful  or  a  fini- 
cal expression,  in  a  description  of  nature,  would 
equally  have  been  a  gross  incongruity. 

(3.)     Grammatical  Analysis. 

(I.)  "  Structure."  —  Under  this  head  we  re- 
turn to  the  humbler  department  of  grammatical 
characteristics,  and  trace  the  effect  produced  on 
expression  by  syntactical  structure  and  arrange- 
ment^ as  rendering  style  simple  or  artificial,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  in  which  the  order  of  the 
constructive  clauses  of  a  sentence  is  direct  or  in- 
verted. In  this  particular,  the  writer  of  the  pas- 
sage which  we  are  analysing,  maintains  the  con- 
sistency of  his  character.  We  find,  in  the  struc- 
ture of  his  sentences,  no  ambitious  or  studied 
inversion  of  clauses,  but  a  direct  and  natural  or- 
der of  language,  such  as  best  harmonises  with 
simple  descriptive  effect;  while  an  easy  melo- 
dious flow  of  expression  is  uniformly  preserved. 
Unity  and  harmony  are,  accordingly,  the  prevail- 
ing characteristics  of  the  sentential  structure  of 


ANALYSIS    OF    COMPOSITION.  123 

the  composition.  Even  in  this  minuter  detail  of 
diction,  the  author  still  evinces  obedience  to  the 
great  law  of  criticism,  that  the  character  of  ex- 
pression should  always  be  in  perfect  keeping  with 
that  of  thought. 

(II.)  "Phraseology."  —  The  turns  of  expres- 
sion in  the  phraseology  of  a  piece,  as  idiomatic  or 
imidiomatic,  as  familiar  or  elevated,  are  the  next 
object  of  attention,  in  the  analysis  of  composition. 
The  first  of  these  traits  gives  raciness  and  relish 
to  language ;  but,  when  too  exclusively  adopted, 
it  becomes  harsh.  The  second  trait  referred  to, 
as  it  generalises  expression,  gives  expansion  to 
style ;  but,  when  uniformly  prevalent,  becomes 
vague  and  weak  in  effect ;  it  throws  a  latinized 
air  over  expression,  which  is  incompatible  with 
the  freshness  of  genuine  beauty.  The  author 
under  review  avoids  the  errors  of  both  these  ex- 
tremes, and  skilfully  accommodates  his  phraseo- 
logy to  the  character  of  his  thoughts,  as  inclining 
naturally  to  generalised  expression,  in  the  broader 
views  of  his  subject,  and  to  idiomatic  diction, 
when  descending  to  detail.  His  most  familiar 
expressions  do  not  lose  becoming  dignity;  nor 
does  his  elevation  of  language  lose  the  charm  of 
natural  freedom.  In  this  Irait,  also,  of  his  style, 
we  trace  its  character  as  in  strict  keeping  with 
his  subject,  which  would  equally  have  forbidden 
any  low  or  any  high-flown  phraseology,  in  de- 
scribing a  scene  of  quiet  natural  beauty. 

(III.)  "  Choice  of  Words."^ — We  return,  now, 
to  the  immediate  subject  of  the  course  of  exer- 
cises prescribed  in  this  manual,  —  the  critical 
study  of  viords,  as  a  practical  application  of  the 
part  of  grammar  which  is  comprehended  under 


124  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

the  designation  of  etymology,  and  of  the  elemen- 
tary part  of  rhetoric  which  treats  of  the  character 
of  expression,  as  dependent  on  the  fitness  of  the 
words  which  we  employ  for  the  communication 
of  thought.  Under  this  head,  the  rhetorical  re- 
quisition is,  that  our  words  should  possess  the 
three  cardinal  properties  of  "  purity  ",  "  propriety  ", 
and  "  precision."  We  are  accordingly  directed 
to  discard  from  our  style  all  words  which  are  not 
purely  English,  by  origin  or  adoption,  all  which 
are  not  suitable  to  the  proper  style  of  the  theme 
on  which  we  are  writing,  and  all  which  over- 
shoot, or  fall  short  of,  or  glance  aside  from,  the 
precise  meaning  at  which  we  aim.  This  rule  of 
expression  forbids  the  use  of  that  patchwork  of 
style  which  is  produced  by  intermingling  scraps 
of  Latin,  or  the  words  and  phrases  of  foreign  lan- 
guages, with  those  of  our  own.  It  prohibits,  also, 
the  eccentric  practice  of  reviving  obsolete  terms, 
or  adopting  new  and  unusual  ones.  It  excludes 
words  merely  technical,  and  all  which  belong  to 
the  dialect  of  slang,  whether  in  low  or  high  life, 
together  with  all  which  savor,  in  any  respect,  of 
low  and  vulgar  associations ;  while  it  discards,  no 
less  peremptorily,  all  mincing  affectation  and 
squeamish  purism,  all  high-flown  phraseology,  all 
inflated  exaggeration  and  extravagance,  and  all 
forced  intensity  of  expression. 

Judged  by  the  standard  of  all  these  require- 
ments, the  choice  of  words  evinced  in  the  pas- 
sage which  we  have  selected  for  the  purpose  of 
exemplifying  the  analysis  of  composition,  bears 
the  closest  application  of  the  test,  with  uniform 
consistency.  A  single  ill-chosen  word,  a  tech- 
nical, or  a  low  expression,  an  extravagant  or  a 


ANALYSIS    OF    COMrOSlTION.  125 

fictitious  one,  intruding  on  the  gentle  and  serene 
character  of  the  fitting  language  of  the  piece, 
would  have  been  an  unpardonable  blemish  in 
the  treatment  of  a  subject  associated  with  serene 
and  even  sacred  emotions.  The  character  of  his 
theme  has,  in  this  respect,  we  see,  as  in  others, 
been  the  author's  monitor  and  guide ;  and  we  are 
thus  once  more  referred  to  subject  and  thought, 
as  the  true  springs  of  language,  and  our  only  re- 
liable prompters  in  the  choice  of  words. 

Explanatory  Observations.  —  The  fitness  of  any 
word  to  represent  an  idea,  in  consecutive  composi- 
tion, depends  wholly  on  its  character  as  a  constitu- 
ent part  of  an  entire  structure;  the  symmetry  of 
which  is  to  be  maintained  throughout.  Our  subject 
is  the  ground  on  which  we  rest  the  foundation  of 
thought,  and  prescribes  the  character  and  style  of 
the  edifice  which  we  are  to  erect ;  and  the  details 
and  specifications  must,  in  turn,  be  accommodated 
to  the  order  of  architecture  which  we  have  adopted. 
To  apply  this  remark  to  the  piece  which  we  have 
been  analysing,  we  may  observe,  on  review,  that 
the  principle  of  unity  in  subject,  thought,  and  lan- 
guage, is  successfully  preserved  in  every  particular, 
and  constitutes  the  characteristic  excellence  of  the 
whole  composition.  Thus,  the  theme  presents  to 
the  mind,  as  a  groundwork,  the  2'>Jccisures  of  spring ; 
this  subject  suggests  a  connected  train  of  serene  and 
cheerful  thought;  this  succession  of  thought  devel- 
opes  into  a  series  of  pleasing  ideas,  in  detail ;  these 
ideas  are  associated  with  graceful  and  tender  image- 
ry ;  this  imagery  induces  refinement  and  elegance  in 
the  style  of  language  in  which  it  is  embodied ;  these 
qualities  of  style  give  a  pleasing  and  harmonious  flow 
to  the  sentential  structure  of  the  composition;  tliis 
harmony  is  developed  in  accordant  phrases ;  and  these 
11* 


126  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

resolve  themselves  into  ivcU- chosen  words.  —  At  every 
successive  step  of  our  analysis,  we  trace  a  pervad- 
ing principle  of  unity,  —  the  pleasing  emotion  w^liich 
is  suggested  by  the  subject,  and  diffuses  itself  over 
every  feature  of  the  whole  production. 

To  feel  the  full  value  of  the  exercise  of  critical 
judgment  and  taste,  in  the  use  of  words,  we  do  well, 
occasionally  to  invert  the  order  of  study  which  has 
just  been  exemplified  in  the  analysis  of  composition, 
and,  following  the  constructive  method,  to  trace  the 
well-chosen  word  to  its  necessary  effect  on  the  cha- 
racter of  phraseology,  —  the  phraseology  as  deter- 
mining the  structure, —  the  structure  as  influencing 
the  style,  —  the  style  as  constituting,  in  part,  the  elo- 
quence of  the  passage,  —  the  eloquence  as  coloring 
the  ideas,  —  the  ideas  as  determining  the  current  of 
thought,  —  and  the  train  of  thought  as  modifying,  for 
the  time,  the  subject. 

The  passage  which  we  have  used  to  exemplify 
analysis,  if  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the  construct- 
ive process  in  rhetoric,  would  be  characterised  as 
follows :  The  author's  appropriate  choice  of  words, 
gives  pliancy  to  his  phi'aseology,  fluency  and  harmony 
to  his  sentences,  elegance  to  his  style,  gracefulness  to 
his  imagery,  vivacity  and  beauty  to  his  ideas,  and  at- 
tractive interest  to  his  subject. 

Even  this  brief  enumeration  of  qualities,  however, 
reminds  us  that,  as  it  commences  w^ith  ascribing  ap- 
propriateness to  the  writer's  choice  of  words,  we  must 
still  revert  to  the  tone  and  character  of  the  sid)ject, 
as  the  standard  by  wliich  to  judge  correctly  of  every 
point  in  expression.  To  verify,  therefore,  our  first 
statement  regarding  the  passage  under  consideration, 
the  reasons  for  our  decision  must  be  traced. in  logi- 
cal sequence,  or  analogous  succession,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  The  subject  of  composition,  in  the 
present  instance,  is  the  moral  effect  of  spring ;  or,  re- 
ducing the  subject  to  its  simplest  element,  w^e  may 


ANALYSIS    OF    COMPOSITION.  127 

leave  but  the  single  word  spring,  as  the  theme.  By 
the  inevitable  law  of  association,  tliis  word  suggests, 
to  all  minds,  ideas  of  animatwn,  cheerfulness,  beauty, 
serenity,  tenderness.  The  mental  scene  is,  univer- 
sally, one  o^ genial  amenity.  To  present  such  scene- 
ry, therefore,  in  a  word-picture,  we  feel  that  we 
must  avoid  all  terms  associated  with  mere  force,  — 
with  harshness,  abruptness,  vehemence,  or  violence 
of  action,  or  Avith  sternness  or  moroseness  of  feeling. 
Our  words,  we  are  aware,  must  be  suggestive  oi gen- 
tleness, khidliness,  life,  and  grace.  —  Comparing  the 
author's  language  in  the  extract  before  us,  with  these 
qualities,  we  find  that  he  nowhere  disturbs  the  se- 
renity, or  overclouds  the  cheerfulness,  or  deadens 
the  pathos  of  his  descriptions,  by  inappropriate  ex- 
pression, but  that  every  idea  and  every  epithet  which 
he  introduces,  is  in  keeping  with  the  scene  before 
him,  which  his  words  never  bedim  or  obscure,  but 
rather  tend  to  brighten  and  enhance;  and  his  lan- 
guage, throughout,  we  unhesitatingly  pronounce 
"  approjjriate." 

Suggestions  to  Students.  —  To  determine,  with  crit- 
ical accuracy  of  judgment,  the  appropriateness  of 
even  a  single  word  in  composition,  it  may  thus  be 
necessary  to  advert  to  the  character  of  the  subject, 
as  requiring  one  mode  of  expression,  rather  than  an- 
other, and  therefore  indicating  the  choice  of  one 
term,  in  preference  to  another,  in  our  style  of  lan- 
guage.* Facility  and  readiness  of  discrimination,  as 
to  the  fitness  of  words  for  the  various  forms  of 
thought,  become  matters  of  tact  and  intuition,  after 
the  discipline  of  due  practice.  But,  without  such 
training,  the  young  writer  is  always  in  danger  of  fall- 
ing into  the  random  expressions  and  loose  phrases 


*  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English  words,  before  mentioned,  will 
be  found  an  invaluable  aid  in  this  department  of  rhetorical  cul- 
ture, to  which  it  is  peculiarly  and  most  successfully  adapted. 


128  EXERCISES    ON    WORDS. 

which  so  generally  characterise  the  effusions  of  the 
immature  mind  and  the  unpractised  pen.  The  care- 
ful analysis  of  composition,  as  a  frequent  exercise,  is 
therefore  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  a  preparation 
for  good  writing.  It  serves,  also,  as  an  effectual 
training  for  other  purposes,  of  equal  moment.  —  The 
exercise  of  tracing  the  treatment  of  subjects,  and  the 
evolution  of  topics,  in  the  compositions  of  great  wri- 
ters, may  not  unjustly  be  compared  to  a  species  of 
mental  gymnastics,  by  which  the  student  is  trained 
not  only  to  expertness  in  the  intellectual  processes 
connected  with  critical  analysis,  as  a  preparation  for 
correct  writing,  but  to  skill  in  the  management  and 
methodising  of  subjects,  for  the  purposes  of  state- 
ment and  discussion  in  oral  address, — a  department 
of  rhetorical  culture  which  still  receives  a  very  in- 
adequate degree  of  attention  in  our  seminaries  of 
education. 

To  return  to  our  immediate  subject,  the  cultivation 
of  critical  correctness  of  taste,  with  reference  to  the 
character  of  expression,  as  decided  by  choice  of 
words, — we  may  leave  this  branch  of  practical  rhet- 
oric with  the  concluding  remark,  that  the  many  rules 
which  are  laid  down  by  the  rhetorician,  for  the  guid- 
ance of  the  young  Avriter  in  choice  of  expression, 
may  be  summed  up  in  the  single  direction  to  culti- 
vate soundness  of  critical  judgment  and  purity  of 
taste.  Criticism,  whether  regarded  as  a  science  or 
as  an  art,  does  nothing  more  than  embody  and  pre- 
scribe the  maxims  of  good  sense,  suggested  by  ex- 
tensive observation,  careful  examination,  and  diligent 
study,  —  and  founded  on  solid  information  and  assid- 
uous self-discipline.  The  laws  of  pure  taste,  in  lan- 
guage, as  in  all  other  forms  of  expression,  are  but 
equivalents  for  the  suggestions  proceeding  from  a 
genuine  love  of  nature,  the  study  of  true  art,  and  the 
habitual  perusal  of  the  best  writers,  —  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  aU  whose  character  is  merely  ordinaiy  or  in- 
ferior. 


SUBJECTS   FOR  EXERCISES. 


[The  following  extracts  are  presented  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing the  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time,  to  the  student,  which 
would  be  caused  by  frequent  references  to  the  library,  for  the  ma- 
terial on  which  to  practise  the  exercises  prescribed  on  synonyms 
and  other  topics,  in  preceding  pages  of  this  manual,  and,  more 
particularly,  that  on  the  analysis  of  composition.  The  extracts 
furnish  examples  of  the  varying  character  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, from  its  earlier  prose  forms  to  our  own  time.  They  are 
introduced  to  aid  the  student  in  forming  a  correct  conception  of 
the  prominent  characteristics  of  eminent  writers  whose  modes  of 
expression  are  standards  of  reference,  as  models  of  style,  and,  in 
particular,  of  acknowledged  classical  purity  and  propriety  in  their 
choice  and  use  of  words.  The  close,  analytic  study  of  such  au- 
thors, is  the  best  of  all  resorts  for  the  acquisition  of  true  taste  and 
critical  discernment,  —  the  indispensable  conditions  of  a  skilful 
and  etfective  use  of  language.] 


EXTRACT   I. 

Truth.  Lord  Bacon. 

What  is  truth?  said  jesting  Pilate,  and  would  not 
stay  for  an  answer.  Certainly  there  be  that  delight 
in  giddiness,  and  count  it  a  bondage  to  fix  a  belief; 
afiecting  freewill  in  thinking,  as  well  as  in  acting : 
and,  though  the  sects  of  philosophers  of  that  kind  be 
gone,  yet  there  remain  certain  discoursing  wits  which 
are  of  the  same  veins,  though  there  be  not  so  much 
blood  in  them  as  was  in  those  of  the  ancients.  But 
it  is  not  only  the  difficulty  and  labor  which  men  take 

029) 


130  SUBJECTS    FOR   EXERCISES. 

in  finding  out  of  truth ;  nor  again,  that,  when  it  is 
found,  it  imposeth  upon  men's  thoughts,  that  doth 
bring  Hes  in  favor ;  but  a  natural  though  corrupt  love 
of  the  lie  itself  One  of  the  later  schools  of  the  Gre- 
cians examineth  the  matter,  and  is  at  a  stand  to 
think  what  should  be  in  it,  that  men  should  love  lies, 
where  neither  they  make  for  pleasure,  as  with  poets ; 
nor  for  advantage,  as  with  the  merchant ;  but  for  the 
lie's  sake.  But  I  cannot  tell :  this  same  truth  is  a 
naked  and  open  daylight,  that  doth  not  shew  the 
masques,  and  mummeries,  and  triumphs  of  the  world, 
half  so  stately  and  daintily  as  candlelights.  Truth 
may,  perhaps,  come  to  the  price  of  a  pearl,  that 
sheweth  best  by  day  ;  but  it  will  not  rise  to  the  price 
of  a  diamond  or  carbuncle,  that  sheweth  best  in  va- 
ried lights.  A  mixture  of  a  lie  doth  ever  add  pleas- 
ure. Doth  any  man  doubt,  that  if  there  were  taken 
out  of  men's  minds,  vain  opinions,  flattering  hopes, 
false  valuations,  imaginations  as  one  would,  and  the 
like,  it  would  leave  the  minds  of  a  number  of  men 
poor  shrunken  things,  full  of  melancholy  indisposi- 
tion, and  unpleasing  to  themselves  ? 

One  of  the  fathers,  in  great  severity,  called  poesy, 
the  wine  of  demons,  because  it  filleth  the  imagina- 
tion ;  and  yet  it  is  but  the  shadow  of  a  lie.  But  it  is 
not  the  lie  that  passeth  through  the  mind,  but  the  lie 
that  sinketh  in  and  settleth  in  it,  that  doth  the  hurt, 
such  as  we  spake  of  before.  But  howsoever  these 
things  are  thus  in  men's  depraved  judgments  and 
afl^ections,  yet  truth,  which  only  doth  judge  itself, 
teacheth  that  the  inquiry  of  truth,  which  is  the  love- 
making,  or  wooing,  of  it;  the  knowledge  of  truth, 
which  is  the  presence  of  it ;  and  the  belief  of  truth, 
which  is  the  enjoying  of  it ;  is  the  sovereign  good  of 
human  nature. 

The  first  creature  of  God,  in  the  works  of  the  days, 
was  the  light  of  the  sense ;  the  last  was  the  light  of 
reason ;  and  his  sabbath  work,  ever  since,  is  the  illu- 


EXTRACT    I.  131 

mination  of  his  Spirit.  First  he  breathed  lij^ht  upon 
the  face  of  the  matter,  or  chaos ;  then  he  breathed 
light  into  the  face  of  man ;  and  still  he  breatheth  and 
inspireth  light  into  the  face  of  his  chosen. 

The  poet  that  beautified  the  sect  that  was  other- 
wise inferior  to  the  rest,  saith  yet  excellently  well, 
"  It  is  a  pleasure  to  stand  upon  the  shore,  and  to  see 
ships  tossed  upon  the  sea ;  a  pleasure  to  stand  in  the 
window  of  a  castle,  and  to  see  a  battle,  and  the  ad- 
ventures thereof  below ;  but  no  pleasure  is  compara- 
ble to  the  standing  upon  the  vantage  ground  of 
truth,  (a  hill  not  to  be  commanded,  and  where  the 
air  is  always  clear  and  serene,)  and  to  see  the 
errors,  and  wanderings,  and  mists,  and  tempests,  in 
the  vale  below : "  so  always,  that  this  prospect  be 
with  pity,  and  not  with  swelling  or  pride.  Certainly 
it  is  heaven  upon  earth  to  have  a  man's  mind  move 
in  charity,  rest  in  Providence,  and  turn  upon  the  poles 
of  truth. 

To  pass  from  theological  and  philosophical  truth 
to  the  truth  of  civil  business,  it  will  be  acknowledged, 
even  by  those  that  practise  it  not,  that  clear  and 
sound  dealing  is  the  honor  of  man's  nature,  and  that 
mixture  of  falsehood  is  like  alloy  in  coin  of  gold  and 
silver,  which  may  make  the  metal  work  the  better, 
but  it  embaseth  it :  for  these  winding  and  crooked 
courses  are  the  goings  of  the  serpent ;  which  goeth 
basely  upon  the  belly,  and  not  upon  the  feet.  There 
is  no  vice  that  doth  so  cover  a  man  with  shame  as 
to  be  found  false  and  perfidious :  and  therefore  Mon- 
taigne saith  prettily,  ^vhen  he  inquired  the  reason 
why  the  word  of  the  lie  should  be  such  a  disgrace, 
and  such  an  odious  charge,  "  If  it  be  weU  weighed, 
to  say  that  a  man  lieth,  is  as  much  as  to  say  that  he 
is  brave  towards  God,  and  a  coward  towards  men : 
for  a  lie  faces  God,  and  shrinks  from  man."  Surely 
the  wickedness  of  falsehood  and  breach  of  faith  can- 
not possibly  be  so  highly  expressed  as  in  that  it  shall 


132  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

be  the  last  peal  to  call  the  judgments  of  God  upon 
the  generations  of  men  ;  it  being  foretold  that  when 
"  Christ  Cometh,"  he  shall  not  "  find  faith  upon  earth." 


EXTRACT  II. 

Learnins:.  Lord  Bacon. 


'^fa' 


Learning  taketh  away  the  wildness  and  barbarism 
and  fierceness  of  men's  minds :  it  taketh  away  all 
levity,  temerity,  and  insolency,  by  copious  sugges- 
tion of  all  doubts  and  difficulties,  and  acquainting 
the  mind  to  balance  reasons  on  both  sides,  and  to 
turn  back  the  first  offers  and  conceits  of  the  mind, 
and  to  accept  of  nothing  but  examined  and  tried. 
It  taketh  away  vain  admiration  of  anything,  which  is 
the  root  of  all  weakness :  for  all  things  are  admired, 
either  because  they  are  new,  or  because  they  are 
great. 

For  novelty,  no  man  that  wadeth  in  learning  or 
contemplation  thoroughly,  but  will  find  that  printed 
in  heart,  "  There  is  nothing  new  upon  the  earth." 
Neither  can  any  man  marvel  at  the  play  of  puppets, 
that  goeth  behind  the  curtain,  and  adviseth  well  of 
the  motion.  And  for  magnitude,  as  Alexander  the 
Great,  after  that  he  was  used  to  great  armies,  and 
the  great  conquests  of  the  spacious  provinces  in 
Asia,  when  he  received  letters  out  of  Greece,  of  some 
fights  and  services  there,  which  were  commonly  for 
a  passage,  or  a  fort,  or  some  walled  town,  at  the 
most,  he  said,  "  It  seemed  to  him,  that  he  was  ad- 
vertised of  the  battle  of  the  frogs  and  the  mice,  that 
the  old  tales  went  of."  So  certainly,  if  a  man  me- 
ditate upon  the  universal  frame  of  nature,  the  earth 
with  men  upon  it,  the  divineness  of  souls  excepted, 
will  not  seem  much  other  than  an  anthill ;  whereas 


EXTRACT    II.  133 

some  ants  carry  corn,  and  some  carry  their  young, 
and  some  go  empty,  and  all  to-and-fro  a  little  heap 
of  dust.  It  taketh  away  or  mitigateth  fear  of  death, 
or  adverse  fortune ;  wliich  is  one  of  the  greatest  im- 
pediments of  virtue,  and  imperfections  of  manners. 
For  if  a  man's  mind  be  deeply  seasoned  with  the 
consideration  of  the  mortality  and  corruptible  nature 
of  things,  he  will  easily  concur  with  Epictetus,  who 
went  forth,  one  day,  and  saw  a  woman  weeping  for 
her  pitcher  of  earth  that  was  broken ;  and  went  forth 
the  next  day,  and  saw  a  woman  weeping  for  her  son 
that  was  dead ;  and  thereupon  said,  "  Yesterday,  I 
saw  the  brittle  broken :  —  to-day,  I  saw  the  mortal 
dead."  And  therefore  Virgil  did  excellently  and 
profoundly  couple  the  knowledge  of  cause  and  the 
conquest  of  all  fears  together,  as  "  concomitants." 

"  Happy  the  man,  whose  vigorous  soul  can  pierce 
Through  the  formation  of  this  universe ! 
Who  nobly  dares  despise,  with  soul  sedate, 
The  din  of  Acheron,  and  vulgar  fears,  and  fate." 

It  were  too  long  to  go  over  the  particular  remedies 
which  learning  doth  minister  to  all  the  diseases  of 
tlie  mind ;  sometimes  purging  the  ill-humors,  some- 
times opening  the  obstructions,  sometimes  helping 
digestion,  sometimes  healing  the  wounds  and  exul- 
cerations  thereof,  and  the  like ;  and  therefore  I  will 
conclude  with  that  which  hath  "  the  greater  reason 
of  all,"  which  is,  that  it  disposeth  the  constitution  of 
the  mind  not  to  be  fixed  or  settled  in  the  defects 
thereof,  but  still  to  be  capable  and  susceptible  of 
growth  and  reformation.  For  the  unlearned  man 
knows  not  what  it  is  to  descend  into  himself,  or  to 
call  himself  to  account;  nor  the  pleasure  of  "that 
most  pleasant  life,  to  feel  himself  daily  growing  bet- 
ter." The  good  parts  he  hath  he  will  learn  to  show 
to  the  full,  and  use  them  dexterously,  but  not  much 
to  increase  them;  the  faults  he  hath  he  will  learn 
12 


134  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

how  to  hide  and  color  them,  but  not  much  to  amend 
them;  hke  an  ill  mower,  that  mows  on  still,  and 
never  whets  his  scythe.  Whereas,  with  the  learned 
man  it  fares  otherwise,  that  he  doth  ever  intermix 
the  correction  and  amendment  of  his  mind  with  the 
use  and  employment  thereof.  Nay^/arther,  —  in 
general  and  in  sum,  —  certain  it  is  that  truth  and 
goodness  differ  but  as  the  seal  and  the  print :  for 
truth  prints  goodness ;  and  they  be  the  clouds  of  er- 
ror which  descend  in  the  storms  of  passion  and  per- 
turbations. 


EXTRACT  III. 

Conditions  of  Study.  Locke. 

The  knowledge  we  acquire  in  this  world,  I  am 
apt  to  think,  extends  not  beyond  the  limits  of  this 
life.  The  beatific  vision  of  the  other  life  needs  not 
the  help  of  this  dim  twihght ;  but  be  that  as  it  will,  I 
am  sure  the  principal  end  why  we  are  to  get  know- 
ledge here,  is  to  make  use  of  it  for  the  benefit  of 
ourselves  and  others  in  this  world ;  but  if,  by  gain- 
ing it  we  destroy  our  health,  we  labor  for  a  thing 
that  will  be  useless  in  our  hands ;  and  if  by  harass- 
ing our  bodies,  (though  with  a  design  to  render  our- 
selves more  useful,)  we  deprive  ourselves  of  the 
abihties  and  opportunities  of  doing  that  good  we 
might  have  done  with  a  meaner  talent,  which  God 
thought  sufficient  for  us,  by  having  denied  us  the 
strength  to  improve  it  to  that  pitch  which  men  of 
stronger  constitutions  can  attain  to,  we  rob  God  of 
so  much  service,  and  our  neighbor  of  all  that  help 
which,  in  a  state  of  health,  with  moderate  know- 
ledge, we  might  have  been  able  to  perform.  He 
that  sinks  his  vessel  by  overloading  it,  though  it  be 


EXTRACT    in.  135 

with  gold  and  silver,  and  precious  stones,  will  give 
his  owner  but  an  ill  account  of  his  voyage. 

It  being  past  doubt,  then,  that  allowance  is  to  be 
made  for  the  temper  and  strength  of  our  bodies,  and 
that  our  health  is  to  regulate  the  measure  of  our  stu- 
dies, the  great  secret  is  to  find  out  the  proportion ; 
the  difficulty  whereof  lies  in  this,  that  it  must  not 
only  be  varied  according  to  the  constitution  and 
strength  of  every  individual  man,  but  it  must  also 
change  with  the  temper,  vigor,  and  circumstances 
and  health  of  every  particular  man,  in  the  different 
varieties  of  health,  or  indisposition  of  body,  which 
every  thing  our  bodies  have  any  commerce  with  is 
able  to  alter :  so  that  it  is  as  hard  to  say  how  many 
hours  a  day  a  man  shall  study  constantly,  as  to  say 
how  much  meat  he  shall  eat,  every  day,  wherein  his 
own  prudence,  governed  by  the  present  circumstan- 
ces, can  only  judge.  The  regular  proceeding  of  our 
watch  not  being  the  fit  measure  of  time,  but  the 
secret  motions  of  a  much  more  curious  engine,  our 
bodies,  being  to  limit  out  the  proportion  of  time  in 
this  occasion ;  however,  it  may  be  so  contrived  that 
all  the  time  may  not  be  lost,  for  the  conversation  of 
an  ingenious  friend  upon  what  one  hath  read  in  the 
morning,  or  any  other  profitable  subject,  may  pQr- 
haps  let  into  the  mind  as  much  improvement  of 
knowledge,  though  with  less  prejudice  to  the  health, 
as  settled  solemn  poring  over  books,  w^hich  we  gene- 
rally call  study;  which,  though  no  necessary  part, 
yet  I  am  sure  is  not  the  only,  and  perhaps  not  the 
best,  way  of  improving  the  understanding. 

As  the  body,  so  the  mind,  also,  gives  laws  to  our 
studies ;  I  mean  to  the  duration  and  continuance  of 
them ;  let  it  be  never  so  capacious,  never  so  active, 
it  is  not  capable  of  constant  labor  nor  total  rest. 
The  labor  of  the  mind  is  study,  or  intention  of 
thought,  and  when  wo  find  it  is  weary,  either  in 


iM  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

pursuing  other  men's  thoughts,  as  in  reading,  or  tum- 
bling or  tossing  its  own,  as  in  meditation,  it  is  time 
to  give  off,  and  let  it  recover  itself.  Sometimes  me- 
ditation gives  a  refreshment  to  the  weariness  of  read- 
ing, and  vice  versa,  sometimes  the  change  of  ground, 
i.  e.,  going  from  one  subject  or  science  to  another 
rouses  the  mind,  and  fills  it  with  fresh  vigor ;  often- 
times discourse  enlivens  it  when  it  flags,  and  puts 
an  end  to  the  weariness  without  stopping  it  one  jot, 
but  rather  forwarding  it  in  its  journey;  and  some- 
times it  is  so  tired,  that  nothing  but  a  perfect  relaxa- 
tion -will  serve  the  turn.  All  these  are  to  be  made 
use  of,  according  as  every  one  finds  most  successful 
in  himself,  to  the  best  husbandry  of  his  time  and 
thought. 


EXTRACT  IV. 

Love  of  Truth.  Locke. 

It  is  a  duty  we  owe  to  God,  as  the  fountain  and 
author  of  all  truth,  who  is  truth  itself;  and  it  is  a 
duty  also  we  owe  to  our  own  selves,  if  we  will  deal 
candidly  and  sincerely  with  our  own  souls,  to  have 
our  minds  constantly  disposed  to  entertain  and  re- 
ceive truth  wheresoever  we  meet  w^ith  it,  or  under 
whatsoever  appearance  of  plain  or  ordinary,  strange, 
new,  or,  perhaps,  displeasing,  it  may  come  in  our 
way.  Truth  is  the  proper  object,  the  proper  riches 
and  furniture  of  the  mind ;  and  according  as  his  stock 
of  this  is,  so  is  the  diiTcrence  and  value  of  one  man 
above  another.  He  that  fills  his  head  with  vain  no- 
tions and  false  opinions,  may  have  his  mind  perhaps 
puffed  up,  and  seemingly  much  enlarged,  but,  in 
truth,  it  is  narrow  and  empty ;  for  all  that  it  compre- 
hends, all  that  it  contains,  amounts  to  nothing,  or 


EXTRACT    IV.  137 

less  than  nothing ;  for  falsehood  is  below  ignorance, 
and  a  lie  worse  than  nothing. 

Our  first  and  great  duty,  then,  is  to  bring  to  our 
studies  and  to  our  inquiries  after  knowledge,  a  mind 
covetous  of  truth ;  that  seeks  after  nothing  else,  and 
after  that  impartially,  and  embraces  it,  how  poor, 
how  contemptible,  how  unfashionable  soever  it  may 
seem.  This  is  that  which  all  studious  men  profess 
to  do,  and  yet  it  is  that  where  I  think  very  many 
miscarry.  Who  is  there,  almost,  that  has  not  opin- 
ions planted  in  him  by  education,  time  out  of  mind ; 
wliich  by  that  means  come  to  be  as  the  municipal 
laws  of  the  country,  which  must  not  be  questioned, 
but  are  then  looked  on  with  reverence,  as  the  stand- 
ards of  right  and  wrong,  truth  and  falsehood ;  when, 
perhaps,  these  so  sacred  opinions  were  but  the  ora- 
cles of  the  nursery,  or  the  traditional  grave  talk  of 
those  who  pretend  to  inform  our  childhood ;  who  re- 
ceived them  from  hand  to  hand,  without  ever  exam- 
ining them.  This  is  the  fate  of  our  tender  age, 
which  being  thus  seasoned  early,  it  grows  by  con- 
tinuation of  time,  as  it  were  into  the  very  constitu- 
tion of  the  mind,  which  afterwards  very  difficultly 
receives  a  different  tincture.  When  we  are  grown 
up,  we  find  the  world  divided  into  bands  and  com- 
panies ;  not  only  as  congregated  under  several  poli- 
ties and  governments,  but  united  only  upon  account 
of  opinions,  and  in  that  respect,  combined  strictly 
one  with  another,  and  distinguished  from  others,  es- 
pecially in  matters  of  religion.  If  birth  or  chance 
have  not  thrown  a  man  young  into  any  of  these, 
which  yet  seldom  fails  to  happen,  choice,  when  he 
is  grown  up,  certainly  puts  him  into  some  or  other 
of  them ;  often  out  of  an  opinion  that  that  party  is  in 
the  right,  and,  sometimes,  because  he  finds  it  is  not 
safe  to  stand  alone,  and  therefore  thinks  it  conven- 
ient to  herd  somewhere.  Now,  in  every  one  of  these 
parties  of  men  there  are  a  certain  number  of  opin- 
12* 


138  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

ions  which  are  received  and  owned  as  the  doctrines 
and  tenets  of  that  society,  with  the  profession  and 
practice  whereof  all  who  are  of  their  communion 
ought  to  give  up  themselves,  or  else  they  will  be 
scarce  looked  on  as  of  that  society,  or  at  best,  be 
thought  but  lukewarm  brothers,  or  in  danger  to  apos- 
tatise. 

It  is  plain,  in  the  great  difference  and  contrariety 
of  opinions  that  are  amongst  these  several  parties, 
that  there  is  much  falsehood  and  abundance  of  mis- 
takes in  most  of  them.  Cunning  in  some,  and  ignor- 
ance in  others,  first  made  them  keep  them  up  ;  and 
yet  how  seldom  is  it  that  implicit  faith,  fear  of  losing 
credit  with  the  party  or  interest,  (for  all  these  oper- 
ate in  their  turns,)  suffers  any  one  to  question  the 
tenet  of  his  party ;  but  altogether  in  a  bundle  he  re- 
ceives, embraces,  and  without  examining,  he  pro- 
fesses, and  sticks  to  them,  and  measures  all  other 
opinions  by  them.  Worldly  interest  also  insinuates 
into  several  men's  minds  divers  opinions,  which  suit- 
ing with  their  temporal  advantage,  are  kindly  re- 
ceived, and,  in  time,  so  rivetted  there,  that  it  is  not 
easy  to  remove  them.  By  these,  and,  perhaps  other 
means,  opinions  come  to  be  settled  and  fixed  in 
men's  minds,  which,  whether  true  or  false,  there 
they  remain  in  reputation,  as  substantial,  material 
truths,  and  so  are  seldom  questioned  or  examined  by 
those  who  entertain  them ;  and  if  they  happen  to  be 
false,  as,  in  most  men,  the  greatest  part  must  neces- 
sarily be,  they  put  a  man  quite  out  of  the  way  in  the 
whole  course  of  his  studies ;  and,  though  in  his  read- 
ing and  inquiries,  he  flatters  himself  that  his  design 
is  to  inform  his  understanding  in  the  real  knowledge 
of  truth,  yet  in  effect  it  tends  and  reaches  to  nothing 
but  the  confirming  of  his  already  received  opinions, 
the  things  he  meets  with  in  other  men's  writings 
and  discoveries  being  received  or  neglected  as  they 
hold  proportion  with  those  anticipations  which  be- 
fore had  taken  possession  of  his  mind. 


EXTRACT    V.  139 

EXTRACT   V. 

Aids  to  the  Acquisition  of  Knowledge.       Locke. 

One  thing,  which  is  of  great  use  for  the  clear  con- 
ception of  truth,  is,  if  we  can  bring  ourselves  to  it,  to 
think  upon  things,  abstracted  and  separate  from 
words.  Words,  without  doubt,  are  the  great  and  al- 
most only  way  of  conveyance  of  one  man's  thoughts 
to  another  man's  understanding ;  but  when  a  man 
thinks,  reasons,  and  discourses  within  himself,  I  see 
not  what  need  he  has  of  them.  I  am  sure  it  is  bet- 
ter to  lay  them  aside,  and  have  an  immediate  con- 
verse with  the  ideas  of  the  things  ;  for  words  are,  in 
their  own  nature,  so  doubtful  and  obscure,  their  sig- 
nification, for  the  most  part,  so  uncertain  and  unde- 
termined, which  men  even  designedly  have  in  their 
use  of  them  increased,  that  if,  in  our  meditations, 
our  thoughts  busy  themselves  about  words,  and  stick 
at  the  names  of  things,  it  is  odds  but  they  are  misled 
or  confounded.  This,  perhaps,  at  first  sight  may 
seem  but  a  useless  nicety ;  and  in  the  practice,  per- 
haps, it  will  be  found  more  difficult  than  one  would 
imagine ;  but  yet,  upon  trial,  I  dare  say  any  one's 
experience  will  tell  him  it  was  worth  while  to  en- 
deavor it.  He  that  would  call  to  mind  his  absent 
friend,  or  preserve  his  memory,  does  it  best  and  most 
effectually  by  reviving  in  his  mind  the  idea  of  him, 
and  contemplating  that ;  and  it  is  but  a  very  faint 
imperfect  way  of  thinking  of  one's  friend  barely  to 
remember  his  name,  and  think  upon  the  sound  he  is 
usually  called  by. 

It  is  of  gi'eat  use  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  not 
to  be  too  confident,  nor  too  distrustful  of  our  own 
judgment,  nor  to  believe  we  can  comprehend  all 
things,  nor  nothing.  He  that  distrusts  his  own  judg- 
ment, in  every  thing,  and  thinks  his  understanding 


140  SUBJECTS    FOR   EXERCISES. 

not  to  be  relied  on  in  the  search  of  truth,  cuts  off  his 
own  legs,  that  he  may  be  carried  up  and  down  by- 
others,  and  makes  himself  a  ridiculous  dependent 
upon  the  knowledge  of  others,  which  can  possibly  be 
of  no  use  to  him ;  for  I  can  no  more  know  any  thing 
by  another  man's  understanding,  than  I  can  see  by 
another  man's  eyes.  So  much  I  know,  so  much 
truth  I  have  got ;  so  far  I  am  in  the  right,  as  I  do 
really  know  myself;  whatever  other  men  have,  it  is 
in  their  possession ;  it  belongs  not  to  me,  nor  can  be 
communicated  to  me,  but  by  making  me  alike  know- 
ing: it  is  a  treasure  that  cannot  be  lent  or  made 
over.  On  the  other  side,  he  that  thinks  his  under- 
standing capable  of  all  things,  mounts  upon  wings 
of  his  own  fancy,  though,  indeed,  nature  never 
meant  him  any,  and  so  venturing  into  the  vast  ex- 
panse of  incomprehensible  varieties,  only  makes 
good  the  fable  of  Icarus,  and  loses  himself  in  the 
abyss.  We  are  here  in  the  state  of  mediocrity; 
finite  creatures,  furnished  with  powers  and  faculties 
very  well  fitted  to  some  purposes,  but  very  dispro- 
portionate to  the  vast  and  unlimited  extent  of  things. 
It  would,  therefore,  be  of  great  service  to  us  to 
know  how  far  our  faculties  can  reach,  that  so  we 
might  not  go  about  to  fathom  where  our  line  is  too 
short;  to  know  what  things  are  the  proper  objects  of 
our  inquiries  and  understanding,  and  where  it  is  we 
ought  to  stop,  and  launch  out  no  farther,  for  fear  of 
losing  ourselves  or  our  labor.  This,  perhaps,  is  an 
inquiry  of  as  much  difficulty  as  any  we  shall  find  in 
our  way  of  knowledge,  and  fit  to  be  resolved  by  a 
man  when  he  is  come  to  the  end  of  his  study,  and 
not  to  be  proposed  to  one  at  his  setting  out ;  it  being 
properly  the  result  to  be  expected  after  a  long  and 
diligent  research  to  determine  what  is  knowable  and 
'what  not,  and  not  a  question  to  be  resolved  by  the 
guesses  of  one  who  has  scarce  yet  acquainted  him- 
self with  obvious  truths.     I  shall  therefore,  at  pre- 


EXTRACT    V.  141 

sent,  suspend  the  thoughts  I  have  had  upon  this 
subject,  which  ought  maturely  to  be  considered  of, 
ahvays  remembering  that  things  infinite  are  too  large 
for  our  capacity;  we  can  have  no  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  them,  and  our  thoughts  are  at  a  loss 
and  confounded,  when  they  pry  too  curiously  into 
them.  The  essences  also  of  substantial  beings,  are 
beyond  our  ken ;  the  manner  also  how  nature,  in  this 
great  machine  of  the  world,  produces  the  several 
phenomena,  and  continues  the  species  of  things  in  a 
successive  generation,  is  what,  I  think,  lies  also  out 
of  the  reach  of  our  understanding.  That  which 
seems  to  me  to  be  suited  to  the  end  of  man,  and  lie 
level  to  his  understanding,  is  the  improvement  of 
natural  experiments  for  the  conveniences  of  this  life, 
and  the  way  of  ordering  himself  so  as  to  attain  hap- 
piness in  the  other,  —  i.  e.  moral  philosophy,  wliich, 
in  my  sense,  comprehends  rehgion  too,  or  a  man's 
whole  duty. 

It  is  too  obvious  a  thing  to  mention  the  reading 
only  the  best  authors  on  those  subjects  we  would 
inform  ourselves  in.  The  reading  of  bad  books  is 
not  only  the  loss  of  time,  and  standing  still,  but  going 
backwards,  quite  out  of  one's  way ;  and  he  that  has 
his  head  filled  with  wi'ong  notions,  is  much  more  at 
a  distance  from  truth,  than  he  that  is  perfectly  igno- 
rant. 

I  will  only  say  this  one  thing  concerning  books, 
that  however  it  has  got  the  name,  yet  converse  with 
books  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  the  principal  part  of 
study ;  there  are  two  others  that  ought  to  be  joined 
with  it,  each  whereof  contributes  its  share  to  our  im- 
provement in  knowledge ;  and  those  are  meditation 
and  discourse.  Reading,  methinks,  is  but  collecting 
the  rough  materials,  amongst  which  a  great  deal 
must  be  laid  aside  as  useless.  Meditation  is,  as  it 
were,  choosing  and  fitting  the  materials,  framing  the 
timbers,  squaring  and  laying  the  stones,  and  raising 


142  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

tlie  building;  and  discourse  with  a  friend,  (for  wran- 
gling in  a  dispute  is  of  little  use,)  is,  as  it  were,  sur- 
veying the  structure,  walking  in  the  rooms,  and  ob- 
serving the  symmetry  and  agreement  of  the  parts, 
taking  notice  of  the  solidity  or  defects  of  the  works, 
and  the  best  way  to  find  out  and  correct  what  is 
amiss ;  besides  that  it  helps  often  to  discover  truths, 
and  fix  them  in  our  minds,  as  much  as  either  of  the 
other  two. 


EXTRACT  VI. 

Employment  of  Time.        Addison. 

We  all  of  us  complain  of  the  shortness  of  time, 
saith  Seneca,  and  yet  have  much  more  than  we 
know  what  to  do  with.  "  Our  lives,"  says  he,  "  are 
spent  either  in  doing  nothing  at  all,  or  in  doing  no- 
thing to  the  purpose,  or  in  doing  nothing  that  we 
ought  to  do.  We  are  always  complaining  our  days 
are  few,  and  acting  as  though  there  would  be  no 
end  of  them."  That  noble  philosopher  has  described 
our  inconsistency  with  ourselves  in  this  particular, 
by  all  those  various  turns  of  expression  and  thought 
which  are  peculiar  to  his  writings. 

I  often  consider  mankind  as  wholly  inconsistent 
with  itself  in  a  point  that  bears  some  affinity  to  the 
former.  Though  we  seem  grieved  at  the  shortness 
of  life  in  general,  we  are  wishing  every  period  of  it 
at  an  end.  The  minor  longs  to  be  at  age,  then  to  be 
a  man  of  business,  then  to  make  up  an  estate,  then 
to  arrive  at  honors,  then  to  retire.  Thus,  although 
the  whole  of  life  is  allowed  by  every  one  to  be  short, 
the  several  divisions  of  it  appear  long  and  tedious. 
We  are  for  lengthening  our  span  in  general,  but 
would  fain  contract  the  parts  of  wliich  it  is  com- 


EXTRACT    VI.  143 

posed.  The  usurer  would  be  very  well  satisfied  to 
have  all  the  time  annihilated  that  lies  between  the 
present  moment  and  next  quarter-day.  The  politi- 
cian would  be  contented  to  lose  three  years  in  his 
life,  could  he  place  things  in  the  posture  which  he 
fancies  they  will  stand  in  after  such  a  revolution  of 
time.  The  lover  would  be  glad  to  strike  out  of  his 
existence  all  the  moments  that  are  to  pass  away 
before  the  happy  meeting.  Thus,  as  fast  as  our, 
time  runs,  we  should  be  very  glad,  in  the  most  part, 
of  our  lives,  that  it  ran  much  faster  than  it  does. 
Several  hours  of  the  day  hang  upon  our  hands ;  nay, 
we  wish  away  whole  years,  and  travel  through  time 
as  through  a  country  filled  with  many  wild  and 
empty  wastes,  which  we  would  fain  hurry  over,  that 
we  may  arrive  at  those  several  little  settlements  or 
imaginary  points  of  rest,  which  are  dispersed  up  and 
dow^n  in  it. 

If  we  divide  the  life  of  most  men  into  twenty 
parts,  we  shall  find  that  at  least  nineteen  of  them 
are  mere  gaps  and  chasms,  which  are  neither  filled 
with  pleasure  nor  business.  I  do  not  however  in- 
clude in  this  calculation  the  life  of  those  men  w^ho 
■are  in  a  perpetual  hurry  of  affairs,  but  of  those  only 
who  are  not  alvi^ays  engaged  in  scenes  of  action ; 
and  I  hope  I  shall  not  do  an  unacceptable  piece  of 
service  to  these  persons,  if  I  point  out  to  them  cer- 
tain methods  for  the  filling  up  their  empty  spaces  of 
life.  The  methods  I  shall  propose  to  them  are  as 
follows  : 

The  first  is  the  exercise  of  virtue,  in  the  most 
general  acceptation  of  the  word.  That  particular 
scheme  which  comprehends  the  social  virtues  may 
give  employment  to  the  most  industrious  temper, 
and  find  a  man  in  business  more  than  the  most  ac- 
tive station  of  life.  To  advise  the  ignorant,  relieve 
the  needy,  comfort  the  afflicted,  are  duties  which  fall 
in  our  way  almost  every  day  of  our  lives.     A  man 


144  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

has  frequent  opportunities  of  mitigating  the  fierce- 
ness of  a  party ;  of  doing  justice  to  the  character  of 
a  deserving  man ;  of  softening  the  envious,  quieting 
the  angry,  and  rectifying  the  prejudiced ;  which  are 
all  of  them  employments  gruited  to  a  reasonable  na- 
ture, and  bring  great  satisfaction  to  the  person  who 
can  busy  himself  in  them  with  discretion. 

There  is  another  kind  of  virtue  that  may  find  em- 
ployment for  those  retired  hours  in  which  we  are  al- 
together left  to  ourselves,  and  destitute  of  company 
and  conversation ;  I  mean,  that  intercourse  and  com- 
munication which  every  reasonable  creature  ought 
to  maintain  with  the  great  Author  of  his  being.  The 
man  who  lives  under  an  habitual  sense  of  the  divine 
presence,  keeps  up  a  cheerfulness  of  temper,  and 
enjoys  every  moment  the  satisfaction  of  thinking 
himself  in  company  with  his  dearest  and  best  of 
friends.  The  time  never  lies  heavy  upon  him :  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  be  alone.  His  thoughts  and 
passions  are  the  most  busied  at  such  hours  when 
those  of  other  men  are  the  most  inactive.  He  no 
sooner  steps  out  of  the  world  but  his  heart  bums 
with  devotion,  swells  with  hope,  and  triumphs  in 
the  consciousness  of  that  Presence  which  every- 
where surrounds  him ;  or,  on  the  contrary,  pours  out 
its  fears,  its  sorrows,  its  apprehensions,  to  the  great 
Supporter  of  its  existence. 

I  have  here  only  considered  the  necessity  of  a 
man's  being  virtuous,  that  he  may  have  something 
to  do ;  but  if  we  consider  farther,  that  the  exercise 
of  virtue  is  not  only  an  amusement,  for  the  time  it 
lasts,  but  that  its  influence  extends  to  those  parts  of 
our  existence  which  he  beyond  the  grave,  and  that 
our  whole  eternity  is  to  take  its  color  from  those 
hours  which  we  here  employ  in  virtue  or  in  vice,  the 
argument  redoubles  upon  us  for  putting  in  practice 
this  method  of  passing  away  our  time. 

When  a  man  has  but  a  little  stock  to  improve, 


EXTRACT    VI.  145 

and  has  opportunities  of  turning  it  all  to  good  account, 
what  shall  we  think  of  him  if  he  suffers  nineteen 
parts  of  it  to  lie  dead,  and  perhaps  employs  even  the 
twentieth  to  his  ruin  or  disadvantage  ?  But  because 
the  mind  cannot  be  always  in  its  fervors,  nor  strain- 
ed up  to  a  pitch  of  virtue,  it  is  necessary  to  find  out 
proper  employments  for  it  in  its  relaxations. 

The  next  method,  therefore,  that  I  would  propose 
to  fill  up  our  tuTie,  should  be  useful  and  innocent 
diversions.  I  must  confess  I  think  it  is  below  rea- 
sonable creatures  to  be  altogether  conversant  in  such 
diversions  as  are  merely  innocent,  and  have  nothing 
else  to  recommend  them  but  that  there  is  no  hurt  in 
them.  Whether  any  kind  of  gaming  has  even  thus 
much  to  say  for  itself,  I  shall  not  determine ;  but  I 
think  it  is  very  wonderful  to  see  persons  of  the  best 
sense  passing  away  a  dozen  hours  together  in  shuf- 
fling and  dividing  a  pack  of  cards,  with  no  other 
conversation  but  what  is  made  up  of  a  few  game 
phrases,  and  no  other  ideas  but  those  of  black  or  red 
spots  ranged  together  in  different  figures.  Would 
not  a  man  laugh  to  hear  any  one  of  this  species  com- 
plaining that  life  is  short  ? 

The  stage  might  be  made  a  perpetual  source  of 
the  most  noble  and  useful  entertainments,  were  it 
under  proper  regulations. 

But  the  mmd  never  unbends  itself  so  agreeably  as 
in  the  conversation  of  a  well  chosen  friend.  There 
is,  indeed,  no  blessing  of  life  that  is  any  way  compa- 
rable to  the  enjoyment  of  a  discreet  and  virtuous 
friend.  It  eases  and  unloads  the  mind,  clears  and 
improves  the  understanding,  engenders  thoughts  and 
knowledge,  animates  virtue  and  good  resolutions, 
soothes  and  allays  the  passions,  and  finds  employ- 
ment for  most  of  the  vacant  hours  of  life. 

Next  to  such  an  intimacy  with  a  particular  person, 
one  would  endeavor  after  a  more  general  conversa- 
tion with  such  as  are  able  to  entertain  and  improve 
13 


146  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

those  with  whom  they  converse,  which  are  quahfi- 
cations  that  seldom  go  asunder. 

There  are  many  other  useful  amusements  of  life 
which  one  would  endeavor  to  multiply,  that  one 
might,  on  all  occasions,  have  recourse  to  something, 
rather  than  suffer  the  mind  to  lie  idle,  or  run  adrift 
with  any  passion  that  chances  to  rise  in  it. 

A  man  that  has  a  taste  of  music,  painting,  or  arch- 
itecture, is  like  one  that  has  another  sense,  when 
compared  with  such  as  have  no  relish  of  those  arts. 
The  florist,  the  planter,  the  gardener,  the  husband- 
man, when  they  arc  only  as  accompHshments  to  the 
man  of  fortune,  are  great  reliefs  to  a  country  life, 
and  many  ways  useful  to  those  who  are  possessed 
of  them. 

But,  of  all  the  diversions  of  life,  there  is  none  so 
proper  to  fill  up  its  empty  spaces  as  the  reading  of 
useful  and  entertaining  authors.  But  this  I  shall 
only  touch  upon,  because  it,  in  some  measure,  inter- 
feres with  the  third  method,  which  I  shall  propose 
for  the  employment  of  our  dead  unactive  hours,  and 
which  I  shall  only  mention,  in  general,  to  be  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge. 


EXTRACT  VIL 

The  Lnmortality  oftli^  Soul      Addison. 

The  course  of  my  late  speculations  led  me  insen- 
sibly into  a  subject  upon  which  I  always  meditate 
with  great  delight;  I  mean,  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  I  was  yesterday  walking  alone,  in  one  of  my 
friend's  woods,  and  lost  myself  in  it,  very  agreeably, 
as  I  was  running  over,  in  my  mind,  the  several  ar- 
guments that  establish  this  great  point,  wliich  is  the 
basis  of  morality,  and  the  source  of  all  the  pleasing 


EXTRACT    VII.  147 

hopes  and  secret  joys  that  can  arise  in  the  heart  of  a 
reasonable  creature.  I  considered  those  several 
proofs  drawn, 

First,  from  the  nature  of  the  soul  itself,  and  parti- 
cularly, its  immateriaUty,  which  though  not  absolute- 
ly necessary  to  the  eternity  of  its  duration,  has,  I 
think,  been  evinced  to  almost  a  demonstration. 

Secondly,  from  its  passions  and  sentiments,  as 
particularly,  from  its  love  of  existence,  its  horror  of 
annihilation,  and  its  hopes  of  immortality,  with  that 
secret  satisfaction  which  it  finds  in  the  practice  of 
virtue,  and  that  uneasiness  which  follows  in  it  upon 
the  commission  of  vice. 

Thirdly,  from  the  nature  of  the  Supreme  Being, 
whose  justice,  goodness,  wisdom,  and  veracity,  are 
all  concerned  in  this  great  point. 

But,  among  these  and  other  excellent  arguments 
for  the  immortahty  of  the  soul,  there  is  one  drawn 
from  the  perpetual  progress  of  the  soul  to  its  perfec- 
tion, without  a  possibility  of  ever  amving  at  it ;  which 
is  a  hint  that  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  open- 
ed and  improved  by  others  who  have  ^vritten  on  this 
subject,  though  it  seems  to  me  to  carry  a  great  weight 
witii  it.  —  How  can  it  enter  into  the  thoughts  of 
man,  that  the  soul,  which  is  capable  of  such  immense 
perfections,  and  of  receiving  new  improvements  to 
all  eternity,  shall  fall  away  into  nothing,  almost  as 
soon  as  it  is  created  ?  Are  such  abilities  made  for 
no  purpose  ?  A  brute  arrives  at  a  point  of  perfec- 
tion that  he  can  never  pass :  in  a  few  years  he  has 
all  the  endowments  he  is  capable  of;  and,  were  he 
to  live  ten  thousand  more,  would  be  the  same  thing 
he  is  at  present.  Were  a  human  soul  thus  at  a 
stand  in  her  accomplishments,  were  her  faculties  to 
be  full  blown,  and  incapable  of  farther  enlargements, 
I  could  imagine  it  might  fall  away  insensibly,  and 
drop  at  once  into  a  state  of  annihilation.  But  can 
we  believe  that  a  thinking  being,  which  is  in  a  per- 


148  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

petual  progress  of  improvements,  and  travelling  on 
from  perfection  to  perfection,  after  having  just  look- 
ed abroad  into  the  works  of  its  Creator,  and  made  a 
fe^v  discoveries  of  his  infinite  goodness,  wisdom,  and 
power,  must  perish  at  her  first  setting  out,  and  in 
the  very  beginning  of  her  inquiries  ? 

A  man,  considered  in  his  present  state,  does  not 
seem  born  to  enjoy  life,  but  to  deliver  it  down  to 
others.  This  is  not  surprising  to  consider,  in  ani- 
mals ;  which  are  formed  for  our  use,  and  can  finish 
their  business  in  a  short  life.  The  silkworm,  after 
having  spun  her  task,  lays  her  eggs,  and  dies.  But 
a  man  can  never  have  taken  in  his  full  measure  of 
knowledge,  has  not  time  to  subdue  his  passions,  es- 
tablish his  soul  in  virtue,  and  come  up  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  nature,  before  he  is  hurried  off  the  stage. 
Would  an  infinitely  wise  Being  make  such  glorious 
creatures  for  so  mean  a  purpose?  Can  he  delight 
in  the  production  of  such  abortive  intelligences,  such 
short-lived  reasonable  beings  ?  Would  he  give  us 
talents  that  are  not  to  be  exerted  ?  —  capacities  that 
are  never  to  be  gratified?  How  can  we  find  that 
wisdom  which  shines  through  all  His  works,  in  the 
formation  of  man,  without  looking  on  this  world  as 
only  a  nursery  for  the  next,  and  believing  that  the 
several  generations  of  rational  creatures,  which  rise 
up  and  disappear,  in  such  quick  successions,  are 
only  to  receive  their  rudiments  of  existence  here, 
and  afterwards  to  be  transplanted  into  a  more  friend- 
ly climate,  where  they  may  spread  and  flourish  to 
all  eternity? 

There  is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing  and 
triumphant  consideration,  than  this,  of  the  perpetual 
progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards  the  perfec- 
tion of  its  nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a  period 
in  it.  To  look  upon  the  soul  as  going  on  from 
strength  to  strength,  to  consider  that  she  is  to  shine 
for  ever,  with  new  accessions  of  glory,  and  brighten 


EXTRACT    VII.  149 

to  all  eternity ;  that  she  will  be  still  adding  virtue  to 
virtue,  and  knowledge  to  knowledge;  carries  in  it 
something  wonderfully  agreeable  to  that  ambition 
which  is  natural  to  the  mind  of  man.  Nay,  it  must 
be  a  prospect  pleasing  to  God  himself,  to  see  his 
creation  forever  beautifying  in  his  eyes,  and  draw- 
ing nearer  to  him,  by  greater  degrees  of  resemblance. 

Methinks  tliis  simple  consideration,  of  the  pro- 
gress of  a  finite  spirit  to  perfection,  will  be  sufficient 
to  extinguish  all  envy  in  inferior  natures,  and  all 
contempt  in  superior.  That  cherubim,  which  now 
appears  as  a  god  to  a  human  soul,  knows  very  well 
that  the  period  will  come  about  in  eternity,  when 
the  human  soul  shall  be  as  perfect  as  he  himself 
now  is :  nay,  when  she  shall  look  down  upon  that 
degree  of  perfection,  as  much  as  she  now  falls  short 
of  it.  It  is  true  the  higher  nature  still  advances, 
and  by  that  means  preserves  his  distance  and  supe- 
riority in  the  scale  of  being ;  but  he  knows,  how  high 
soever  the  station  is  of  which  he  stands  possessed 
at  present,  the  inferior  nature  will  at  length  mount 
up  to  it,  and  shine  forth  in  the  same  degree  of  glory. 

With  what  astonishment  and  veneration  may  we 
look  into  our  own  souls,  where  there  are  such  hid- 
den stores  of  virtue  and  knowledge,  such  unexhaust- 
ed sources  of  perfection  !  We  know  not  yet  what 
we  shall  be ;  nor  will  it  ever  enter  into  the  heart  of 
man  to  conceive  the  glory  that  will  be  always  in  re- 
serve for  him.  The  soul,  considered  with  its  Creator, 
is  like  one  of  those  mathematical  lines  that  may  draw 
nearer  to  another  for  all  eternity,  without  a  possi- 
bility of  touching  it ;  *  and  can  there  be  a  thought  so 
transporting,  as  to  consider  ourselves  in  these  perpe- 
tual approaches  to  Him,  who  is  not  only  the  stand- 
ard of  perfection  but  of  happiness ! 


*  Those  lines  are  what  geometricians  call  the  asymptotes  of 
the  hyperbola ;  and  the  allusion  to  them  here  is  perhaps  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  that  has  ever  been  made. 
13* 


150  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 


EXTRACT  VIII. 

Wisdom  of  Providence.  Addison. 

To  me,  instinct  in  animals  seems  the  immediate 
direction  of  Providence,  and  such  an  operation  of 
the  Supreme  Being,  as  that  which  determines  all 
the  portions  of  matter  to  their  proper  centres,  A 
modern  philosopher,  quoted  by  Monsieur  Bayle  in 
his  learned  dissertation  on  the  souls  of  brutes,  de- 
livers the  same  opinion,  though  in  a  bolder  form  of 
words,  where  he  says,  "  God  himself  is  the  soul  of 
brutes."  Who  can  tell  what  to  call  that  seeming 
sagacity  in  animals,  which  directs  them  to  such  food 
as  is  proper  for  them,  and  makes  them  naturally  avoid 
whatever  is  noxious  or  unwholesome  ?  Dampier,  in 
his  Travels,  tells  us,  that  when  seamen  are  thrown 
upon  any  of  the  unknown  coasts  of 'America,  they 
never  venture  upon  the  fruit  of  any  tree,  how  tempt- 
ing soever  it  may  appear,  unless  they  observe  that  it 
is  marked  with  the  pecking  of  birds  ;  but  fall  on 
without  any  fear  or  apprehension  where  the  birds 
have  been  before  them. 

But,  notwithstanding  animals  have  nothing  hke 
the  use  of  reason,  we  find  in  them  all  the  lower 
parts  of  our  nature,  the  passions  and  senses,  in  their 
greatest  strength  and  perfection.  And  here  it  is 
worth  our  observation,  that  all  beasts  and  birds  of 
prey  are  wonderfully  subject  to  anger,  malice,  re- 
venge, and  all  other  violent  passions  that  may  ani- 
mate them  in  search  of  their  proper  food ;  as  those 
that  are  incapable  of  defending  themselves,  or  an- 
noying others,  or  whose  safety  lies  chiefly  in  their 
flight,  are  suspicious,  fearful,  and  apprehensive  of 
every  thing  they  see  or  hear ;  whilst  others,  that  are 
of  assistance  and  use  to  man,  have  their  natures 
softened  with  something  mild  and  tractable,  and,  by 


EXTRACT    VIII.  151 

that  means,  are  qualified  for  a  domestic  life.  In  tliis 
case,  the  passions  generally  correspond  with  the 
make  of  the  body.  We  do  not  find  the  fury  of  a 
lion  in  so  weak  and  defenceless  an  animal  as  a 
lamb,  nor  the  meelaicss  of  a  lamb  in  a  creature  so 
armed  for  battle  and  assault  as  the  lion.  In  the  same 
manner,  we  find  that  particular  animals  have  a  more 
or  less  exquisite  sharpness  and  sagacity  in  those 
particular  senses  Avhicli  most  turn  to  their  advantage, 
and  in  which  their  safety  and  ^velfare  are  the  most 
concerned. 

Nor  must  we  here  omit  that  great  variety  of  arms 
with  which  Nature  has  difierently  fortified  the  bodies 
of  several  kinds  of  animals;  such  as  claws,  hoofs, 
horns,  teeth,  and  tusks,  a  tail,  a  sting,  a  trunk,  or  a 
proboscis.  It  is  likewise  observed  by  naturalists,  that 
it  must  be  some  hidden  principle,  distinct  from  what 
we  call  reason,  which  instructs  animals  in  the  use 
of  these  their  arms,  and  teaches  them  to  manage 
them  to  the  best  advantage ;  because  they  naturally 
defend  themselves  with  that  part  in  which  their 
strength  lies,  before  the  weapon  be  formed  in  it ;  as 
is  remarkable  in  Jambs,  which,  though  they  are  bred 
within  doors,  and  never  saw  the  actions  of  their  own 
species,  push  at  those  who  approach  them  with  their 
foreheads,  before  the  fii'st  budding  of  a  horn  appears. 

I  shall  add  to  these  general  observations  an  in- 
stance, w^hich  Mr.  Locke  has  given  us  of  Provi- 
dence, even  in  the  imperfections  of  a  creature  which 
seems  the  meanest  and  most  desj)icable  in  the  whole 
animal  world.  "  We  may,"  says  he,  "  from  the  make 
of  an  oyster  or  cockle,  conclude,  that  it  has  not  so 
many  nor  so  quick  senses  as  a  man,  or  several  other 
animals :  nor,  if  it  had,  would  it,  in  that  state  and  in- 
capacity of  transferring  itself  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, be  bettered  by  them.  Wliat  good  would  sight 
and  hearing  do  to  a  creature,  that  cannot  move  it- 
self to  or  from  the  object,  wherein,  at  a  distance,  it 


152  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

perceives  good  or  evil?  And  would  not  quickness 
of  sensation  be  an  inconvenience  to  an  animal  that 
must  be  still  where  chance  has  once  placed  it,  and 
there  receive  the  afflux  of  colder  or  warmer,  clean  or 
foul  water,  as  it  happens  to  come  to  it "  ? 

I  shall  add  to  this  instance  out  of  Mr.  Locke  an- 
other out  of  the  learned  Dr.  More,  who  cites  it  from 
Cardan,  in  relation  to  another  animal  which  Provi- 
dence has  left  defective,  but,  at  the  same  time,  has 
shown  its  wisdom  in  the  formation  of  that  organ  in 
which  it  seems  chiefly  to  have  failed.  "  What  is 
more  obvious  and  ordinary  than  a  mole?  and  yet 
what  more  palpable  argument  of  Providence  than 
she  ?  the  members  of  her  body  are  so  exactly  fitted 
to  her  nature  and  manner  of  life :  for  her  dwelling 
under  ground  where  nothing  is  to  be  seen.  Nature 
has  so  obscurely  fitted  her  with  eyes,  that  naturalists 
can  scarce  agree  whether  she  have  any  sight  at  all, 
or  no.  But  for  amends,  what  she  is  capable  of,  for 
her  defence  and  warning  of  danger,  she  has  very 
eminently  conferred  upon  her ;  for  she  is  exceeding 
quick  of  hearing.  And  then  her  short  tail  and  short 
legs,  but  broad  forefeet  armed  with  sharp  claws ;  we 
see  by  the  event  to  what  purpose  they  are ;  she  so 
swiftly  working  herself  under  ground,  and  making 
her  way  so  fast  in  the  earth  as  they  that  behold  it 
cannot  but  admire  it.  Her  legs  therefore  are  short, 
that  she  need  dig  no  more  than  will  serve  the  mere 
thickness  of  her  body :  and  her  forefeet  are  broad, 
that  she  may  scoop  away  much  earth  at  a  time ;  and 
little  or  no  tail  she  has,  because  she  courses  it  not  on 
the  ground,  like  the  rat  or  mouse,  of  whose  kindred 
she  is ;  but  lives  under  the  earth,  and  is  fain  to  dig 
herself  a  dwelling  there.  And  she  making  her  way 
through  so  thick  an  element,  which  will  not  yield 
easily,  as  the  air  or  the  water,  it  had  been  danger- 
ous to  have  drawn  so  long  a  train  behind  her;  for 
her  enemy  might  fall  upon  her  rear,  and  fetch  her 


EXTRACT    VIII.  153 

out,  before  she  had  completed  or  got  full  possession 
of  her  works," 

I  cannot  forbear  mentioning  Mr.  Boyle's  remark 
upon  this  last  creature,  who,  I  remember,  some- 
where in  his  works  observes,  that  though  the  mole 
be  not  totally  blind,  (as  it  is  commonly  thought,)  she 
has  not  sight  enough  to  distinguish  particular  ob- 
jects. Her  eye  is  said  to  have  but  one  humor  in  it, 
which  is  supposed  to  give  her  the  idea  of  light,  but 
of  nothing  else,  and  is  so  formed  that  this  idea  is 
probably  painful  to  the  animal.  Whenever  she  comes 
up  into  broad  day,  she  might  be  in  danger  of  being 
taken,  unless  she  were  thus  affected  by  a  light  strik- 
ing upon  her  eye,  and  immediately  warning  her  to 
bury  herself  in  her  proper  element.  More  sight  would 
be  useless  to  her,  as  none  at  all  might  be  fatal. 

I  have  only  instanced  such  animals  as  seem  the 
most  imperfect  works  of  nature ;  and  if  Providence 
shows  itself  even  in  the  blemishes  of  these  crea- 
tures, how  much  more  does  it  discover  itself  in  the 
several  endowments  which  it  has  variously  bestow- 
ed upon  such  creatures  as  are  more  or  less  finished 
and  completed  in  their  several  faculties,  according  to 
the  condition  of  life  in  which  they  are  posted ! 

I  could  wish  our  Koyal  Society  would  compile  a 
body  of  natural  history,  the  best  that  could  be  gath- 
ered together  from  books  and  observations.  If  the 
several  writers  among  them  took  each  his  particular 
species,  and  gave  us  a  distinct  account  of  its  origin- 
al, birth,  and  education;  its  policies,  hostilities,  and 
alliances ;  with  the  frame  and  texture  of  its  inward 
and  outward  parts,  and  particularly  those  that  dis- 
tinguish it  from  all  other  animals,  with  their  peculiar 
aptitudes  for  the  state  of  being  in  vc^hich  Providence 
has  placed  them ;  it  would  be  one  of  the  best  ser- 
vices their  studies  could  do  mankind,  and  not  a  httle 
redound  to  the  glory  of  the  all-wise  Contriver. 

It  is  true,  such  a  natural  history,  after  all  the  dis- 


154  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

quisitions  of  the  learned,  would  be  infinitely  short 
and  defective.  Seas  and  deserts  hide  millions  of 
animals  from,  our  observation.  Innumerable  artifices 
and  stratagems  are  acted  in  the  •*  howling  wilder- 
ness," and  in  the  "  great  deep,"  that  can  never  come 
to  our  knowledge.  Besides  that  there  are  infinitely 
more  species  of  creatures  which  are  not  to  be  seen 
without,  nor  indeed  with,  the  help  of  the  finest 
glasses,  than  of  such  as  are  bulky  enough  for  the 
naked  eye  to  take  hold  of  However,  from  the  con- 
sideration of  such  animals  as  lie  within  the  compass 
of  our  knowledge,  we  might  easily  form  a  conclusion 
of  the  rest,  that  the  same  variety  of  wisdom  and 
goodness  runs  through  the  whole  creation,  and  puts 
every  creature  in  a  condition  to  provide  for  its  safety 
and  subsistence,  in  its  proper  station. 

TuUy  has  given  us  an  admirable  sketch  of  natural 
history,  in  his  second  book  concerning  the  nature  of 
the  gods ;  and  that  in  a  style  so  raised  by  metaphors 
and  descriptions,  that  it  lifts  the  subject  above  rail- 
lery and  ridicule,  which  frequently  fall  on  such  nice 
observations,  when  they  pass  through  the  hands  of 
an  ordinary  writer. 


EXTRACT   IX. 

Good  Intentions.  Addison. 

It  is  the  great  art  and  secret  of  Christianity,  (if  I 
may  use  that  phrase,)  to  manage  our  actions  to  the 
best  advantage,  and  direct  them  in  such  a  manner, 
that  every  thing  we  do  may  turn  to  account  at  that 
great  day  when  every  thing  we  have  done  will  be 
set  before  us. 

In  order  to  give  this  consideration  its  full  weight, 
we  may  cast  all  our  actions  under  the  division  of 


EXTRACT    IX.  155 

such  as  are  in  themselves  either  good,  evil,  or  indif- 
ferent. If  we  divide  our  intentions  after  the  same 
manner,  and  consider  them  with  regard  to  our  ac- 
tions, we  may  discover  that  great  art  and  secret  of 
religion  which  I  have  here  mentioned. 

A  good  intention,  joined  to  a  good  action,  gives  it 
its  proper  force  and  efficacy ;  joined  to  an  evil  action, 
extenuates  its  malignity,  and,  in  some  cases,  may 
take  it  wholly  away;  and,  joined  to  an  indifferent 
action,  turns  it  to  virtue,  and  makes  it  meritorious,  as 
far  as  human  action  can  be  so. 

In  the  next  place,  to  consider  in  the  same  manner 
the  influence  of  an  evil  intention  upon  our  actions. 
An  evil  intention  perverts  the  best  of  actions,  and 
makes  them,  in  reality,  what  the  fathers,  with  a  witty 
kind  of  zeal,  have  termed  the  virtues  of  the  heathen 
world,  so  many  shining  sins.  It  destroys  the  inno- 
cence of  an  indifferent  action,  and  gives  an  evil  ac- 
tion all  possible  blackness  and  horror ;  or,  in  the  em- 
phatical  language  of  sacred  writ,  makes  "  sin  exceed- 
ing sinful." 

If,  in  the  last  place,  we  consider  the  nature  of  an 
indifferent  intention,  we  shall  find  that  it  destroys 
the  merit  of  a  good  action ;  abates,  but  never  takes 
away,  the  malignity  of  an  evil  action ;  and  leaves  an 
indifferent  action  in  its  natural  state  of  indifference. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  unspeakable  advantage  to  pos- 
sess our  minds  with  an  habitual  good  intention,  and 
to  aim  all  our  thoughts,  words,  and  actions  at  some 
laudable  end,  whether  it  be  the  glory  of  our  Maker, 
the  good  of  mankind,  or  the  benefit  of  our  own  souls. 

This  is  a  sort  of  thrift,  or  good  husbandry,  in  moral 
life,  which  does  not  throw  away  any  single  action, 
but  makes  every  one  go  as  far  as  it  can.  It  multi- 
plies the  means  of  salvation,  increases  the  number 
of  our  virtues,  and  diminishes  that  of  our  vices. 

This  zealous  and  active  obedience,  however,  takes 
place  in  the  great  point  we  are  recommending ;  for 


156  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

if,  instead  of  prescribing  to  ourselves  indifferent  ac- 
tions as  duties,  we  apply  a  good  intention  to  all  our 
most  indifferent  actions,  we  make  our  very  existence 
one  continued  act  of  obedience,  Ave  turn  our  diver- 
sions and  amusements  to  our  eternal  advantage,  and 
are  pleasing  Him  whom  we  are  made  to  please,  in 
all  the  circumstances  and  occurrences  of  life. 

It  is  tliis  excellent  frame  of  mind,  this  holy  offi- 
ciousness,  (if  I  may  be  allowed  to  call  it  such,)  which 
is  recommended  to  us  by  the  apostle  in  that  uncom- 
mon precept  wherein  he  directs  us  to  propose  to  our- 
selves the  glory  of  our  Creator  in  all  our  most  indif- 
ferent actions,  "  whether  we  eat,  or  drink,  or  whatso- 
ever we  do." 

A  person,  therefore,  who  is  possessed  with  such 
an  habitual  good  intention  as  that  which  I  have  been 
here  speaking  of,  enters  upon  no  single  circumstance 
of  life,  without  considering  it  as  well  pleasing  to  the 
great  Author  of  his  being,  conformable  to  the  dic- 
tates of  reason,  suitable  to  human  nature  in  general, 
or  to  that  particular  station  in  which  Providence  has 
placed  him.  He  lives  in  the  perpetual  sense  of  the 
Divine  Presence,  regards  himself  as  acting  in  the 
whole  course  of  his  existence,  under  the  observation 
and  inspection  of  that  Being,  who  is  privy  to  all  his 
motions  and  all  his  thoughts,  who  knows  his  "  down- 
sitting  and  his  uprising,  who  is  about  his  path,  and 
about  his  bed,  and  spieth  out  all  his  ways."  In  a 
word,  he  remembers  that  the  eye  of  his  Judge  is  al- 
ways upon  him ;  and  in  every  action  he  reflects  that 
he  is  doing  what  is  commanded  or  allowed  by  Him 
who  will  hereafter  either  reward  or  punish  it.  This 
was  the  character  of  those  holy  men  of  old,  who,  in 
that  beautiful  phrase  of  Scripture,  are  said  to  have 
"  walked  with  God." 


EXTRACT    X.  157 

EXTRACT   X. 

Paradise  Lost.  Johnson. 

By  the  general  consent  of  critics,  the  first  praise 
of  genius  is  due  to  the  writer  of  an  epic  poem ;  as  it 
requires  an  assemblage  of  all  the  powers  which  are 
singly  sufficient  for  other  compositions.  Poetry  is 
the  art  of  uniting  pleasure  with  truth,  by  calling  im- 
agination to  the  help  of  reason.  Epic  poetry  under- 
takes to  teach  the  most  important  truths  by  the  most 
pleasing  precepts,  and  therefore  relates  some  great 
event  in  the  most  aifecting  manner.  History  must 
supply  the  writer  with  the  rudiments  of  narration, 
which  he  must  improve  and  exalt  by  a  nobler  art, 
must  animate  by  dramatic  energy,  and  diversify  by 
retrospection  and  anticipation ;  morality  must  teach 
him  the  exact  bounds,  and  difierent  shades  of  vice 
and  virtue ;  from  policy,  and  the  practice  of  life,  he 
has  to  learn  the  discriminations  of  character,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  passions,  either  single  or  combined ; 
and  physiology,  must  supply  him  with  illustrations 
and  images.  To  put  these  materials  to  poetical  use, 
is  required  an  imagination  capable  of  painting  na- 
ture, and  realizing  fiction.  Nor  is  he  yet  a  poet  till 
he  has  attained  the  whole  extension  of  his  language, 
distinguished  all  the  delicacies  of  phrase,  and  all  the 
colors  of  words,  and  learned  to  adjust  their  different 
sounds  to  all  the  varieties  of  metrical  modulation. 

Bossu  is  of  opinion,  that  the  poet's  first  work  is  to 
find  a  moral,  which  his  fable  is  afterward  to  illus- 
trate and  establish.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
process  only  of  Milton ;  the  moral  of  other  poems  is 
incidental  and  consequent ;  in  Milton's  only  it  is  es- 
sential and  intrinsic.  His  purpose  was  the  most 
useful  and  the  most  arduous;  "to  vindicate  the 
ways  of  God  to  man : "  to  shew  the  reasonableness 

14 


158  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

of  religion,  and  the  necessity  of  obedience  to  the  Di- 
vine Law. 

To  convey  this  moral,  there  must  be  a  fable,  a 
narration  artfully  constructed,  so  as  to  excite  curios- 
ity, and  surprise  expectation.  In  this  part  of  his 
work,  Milton  must  be  confessed  to  have  equalled 
every  other  poet.  He  has  involved,  in  his  account 
of  the  fall  of  man,  the  events  which  preceded,  and 
those  that  were  to  follow  it :  he  has  interwoven  the 
whole  system  of  theology  with  such  propriety,  that 
every  part  appears  to  be  necessary ;  and  scarcely 
any  recital  is  wished  shorter  for  the  sake  of  quicken- 
ing the  progress  of  the  main  action. 

The  subject  of  an  epic  poem  is  naturally  an  event 
of  great  importance.  That  of  Milton  is  not  the  de- 
struction of  a  city,  the  conduct  of  a  colony,  or  the 
foundation  of  an  empire.  His  subject  is  the  fate  of 
worlds,  the  revolutions  of  heaven  and  of  earth ;  re- 
beUion  against  the  supreme  King,  raised  by  the  high- 
est order  of  created  beings ;  the  overthrow  of  their 
host,  and  the  punishment  of  their  crime ;  the  crea- 
tion of  a  new  race  of  reasonable  creatures,  their  orig- 
inal happiness  and  innocence,  their  forfeitures  of 
immortality,  and  their  restoration  to  hope  and  peace. 

Great  events  can  be  hastened  or  retarded  only  by 
persons  of  elevated  dignity.  Before  the  greatness 
displayed  in  Milton's  poem,  all  other  greatness 
shrinks  away.  The  weakest  of  his  agents  are  the 
highest  and  noblest  of  human  beings,  the  original 
parents  of  mankind;  with  whose  actions  the  ele- 
ments consented ;  on  whose  rectitude,  or  deviation 
of  will,  depended  the  state  of  terrestrial  nature,  and 
the  condition  of  all  the  future  inhabitants  of  the 
globe. 

Of  the  other  agents  in  the  poem,  the  chief  are 
such  as  it  is  irreverence  to  name  on  shght  occasions. 
The  rest  were  lower  powers :  — 


EXTRACT    XI.  159 

of  which  the  least  could  wield 

Those  elements,  and  arm  him  with  the  force 
Of  all  their  regions ; 

powers,  which  only  the  control  of  Omnipotence  re- 
strains from  laying  creation  waste,  and  filling  the 
vast  expanse  of  space  with  ruin  and  confusion.  To 
display  the  motives  and  actions  of  beings  thus  supe- 
rior, so  far  as  human  reason  can  examine  them,  or 
human  imagination  represent  them,  is  the  task  which 
tliis  mighty  Poet  has  undertaken  and  performed. 


EXTRACT  XL 

Metaphysical  Poetry.         Johnson. 

Wit,  like  all  other  things  subject  by  their  nature 
to  the  choice  of  man,  has  its  changes  and  fashions, 
and  at  different  times  takes  different  forms.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  appeared 
a  race  of  writers  that  may  be  termed  the  metaphy- 
sical poets. 

These  were  men  of  learning;  and  to  show  their 
learning  was  their  whole  endeavor:  but,  unluckily 
resolving  to  show  it  in  rhyme,  instead  of  writing 
poetry,  they  only  wrote  verses,  and  very  often  such 
verses  as  stood  the  trial  of  the  finger  better  than  of 
the  ear ;  for  the  modulation  was  so  imperfect  that 
they  were  only  found  to  be  verses  by  counting  the 
syllables. 

If  the  father  of  criticism  has  rightly  denominated 
poetry,  "  an  imitative  art,"  these  writers  will,  with- 
out great  wrong,  lose  their  right  to  the  name  of 
poets ;  for  they  cannot  be  said  to  have  imitated  any 
thing:  they  neither  copied  nature  nor  life;  neither 
painted  the  forms  of  matter,  nor  represented  the 
operations  of  intellect. 


160  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

Those,  however,  who  deny  them  to  be  poets,  al- 
low them  to  be  wits.  Dryclen  confesses  of  himself 
and  his  contemporaries,  that  they  fall  below  Donne 
in  wit;  but  maintains,  that  they  surpass  him  in 
poetry. 

If  wit  be  well  described  by  Pope,  as  being  "  that 
which  has  been  often  thought,  but  was  never  before 
so  well  expressed,"  they  certainly  never  attained, 
nor  ever  sought  it ;  for  they  endeavored  to  be  singu- 
lar in  their  thoughts,  and  were  careless  of  their  dic- 
tion. But  Pope's  account  of  wit  is  undoubtedly  er- 
roneous ;  he  depresses  it  below  its  natural  dignity, 
and  reduces  it  from  strength  of  thought  to  happiness 
of  language. 

If,  by  a  more  noble  and  more  adequate  concep- 
tion, that  be  considered  as  wit,  which  is  at  once 
natural  and  new,  that  which,  though  not  obvious,  is, 
upon  its  first  production,  acknowledged  to  be  just ;  if 
it  be  that  wliich  he  that  never  found  it  wonders  how 
he  missed ;  to  wit  of  this  kind  the  metaphysical  poets 
have  seldom  risen.  Their  thoughts  are  often  ne^v, 
but  seldom  natural ;  they  are  not  obvious,  but  neither 
are  they  just;  and  the  reader,  far  from  wondering 
that  he  missed  them,  wonders  more  frequently  by 
what  perverseness  of  industry  they  were  ever  found. 

But  wit,  abstracted  from  its  effects  upon  the  hear- 
er, may  be  more  rigorously  and  philosophically  con- 
sidered as  a  combination  of  dissimilar  images,  or  dis- 
covery of  occult  resemblances  in  things  apparently 
unlike.  Of  wit,  thus  defined,  they  have  more  than 
enough.  The  most  heterogeneous  ideas  are  yoked 
by  violence  together ;  nature  and  art  are  ransacked 
for  illustrations,  comparisons,  and  allusions ;  their 
learning  instructs,  and  their  subtlety  surprises;  but 
the  reader  commonly  thinks  his  improvement  dearly 
bought,  and,  though  he  sometimes  admires,  is  sel- 
dom pleased. 

From  this  account  of  their  compositions,  it  will  be 


EXTRACT    XI.  161 

readily  infeiTed  that  they  were  not  successful  in  re- 
presenting or  moving  the  affections.  As  they  were 
wholly  employed  on  something  unexpected  and  sur- 
prising, they  had  no  regard  to  that  uniformity  of  sen- 
timent which  enables  us  to  conceive  and  to  excite 
the  pains  and  the  pleasure  of  other  minds :  they 
never  inquired  what,  on  any  occasion,  they  should 
have  said  or  done ;  but  wrote  rather  as  beholders 
than  partakers  of  human  nature ;  as  beings  looking 
upon  good  and  evil,  impassive  and  at  leisure;  as 
Epicurean  deities,  making  remarks  on  the  actions  of 
men,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  life,  without  interest 
and  without  emotion.  Their  courtship  was  void  of 
fondness,  and  their  lamentation  of  sorrow.  Their 
wish  was  only  to  say  what  they  hoped  had  never 
been  said  before. 

Nor  was  the  sublime  more  within  their  reach  than 
the  pathetic  ;  for  they  never  attempted  that  compre- 
hension and  expanse  of  thought  which  at  once  fills 
the  whole  mind ;  and  of  which  the  first  efiect  is  sud- 
den astonishment,  and  the  second  rational  admira- 
tion. Sublimity  is  produced  by  aggregation,  and  lit- 
tleness by  dispersion.  Great  thoughts  are  always 
general,  and  consist  in  positions  not  limited  by  ex- 
ceptions, and  descriptions  not  descending  to  minute- 
ness. It  is  with  great  propriety  that  subtlety,  which, 
in  its  original  import,  means  exility  of  particles,  is 
taken  in  its  metaphorical  meaning  for  nicety  of  dis- 
tinction. Those  writers  who  lay  on  the  watch  for 
novelty,  could  have  little  hope  of  greatness ;  for  great 
things  cannot  have  escaped  former  observation. 
Their  attempts  were  always  analytic ;  they  broke 
every  image  into  fragments ;  and  could  no  more  re- 
present, by  their  slender  conceits  and  labored  parti- 
cularities, the  prospects  of  nature,  or  the  scenes  of 
life,  than  he  who  dissects  a  sun-beam  with  a  prism, 
can  exhibit  the  wide  efflilgence  of  a  summer  noon. 

What  they  wanted,  however,  of  the  sublime,  they 
14=* 


162  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

endeavored  to  supply  by  hyperbole ;  their  amplifica- 
tion had  no  limits ;  they  left  not  only  reason  but  fancy 
behind  them ;  and  produced  combinations  of  con- 
fused magnificence,  that  not  only  could  not  be  credit- 
ed, but  could  not  be  imagined. 

Yet  great  labor,  directed  by  great  abilities,  is  never 
wholly  lost :  if  they  frequently  threw  away  their  wit 
upon  false  conceits,  they  likewise  sometimes  struck 
out  unexpected  truth:  if  their  conceits  were  far- 
fetched, they  were  often  worth  the  carriage.  To 
write,  on  their  plan,  it  was  at  least  necessary  to  read 
and  think.  No  man  could  be  born  a  metaphysical 
poet,  nor  assume  the  dignity  of  a  writer,  by  descrip- 
tions copied  from  descriptions,  by  imitations  borrow- 
ed from  imitations,  by  hereditary  similes,  by  readi- 
ness of  rhyme,  and  volubility  of  syllables. 

In  perusing  the  works  of  this  race  of  authors,  the 
mind  is  exercised  either  by  recollection  or  inquiry ; 
either  something  already  learned  is  to  be  retrieved, 
or  something  new  examined.  If  their  greatness  sel- 
dom elevates,  their  acuteness  often  surprises ;  if  the 
imagination  is  not  always  gratified,  at  least  the 
powers  of  reflection  and  comparison  are  employed ; 
and,  in  the  mass  of  materials  which  ingenious  ab- 
surdity has  thrown  together,  genuine  wit  and  useful 
knowledge  may  be  sometimes  found  buried,  perhaps, 
in  grossness  of  expression,  but  useful  to  those  who 
know  their  value ;  and  such  as,  w^hen  they  are  ex- 
panded to  perspicuity,  and  polished  to  elegance,  may 
give  lustre  to  works  which  have  more  propriety, 
though  less  copiousness  of  sentiment. 


EXTRACT    XII.  163 

EXTRACT  XIL 

PaYallel  between  Tope  and  Dry  den.         Johnson. 

Of  composition  there  are  different  methods.  Some 
employ,  at  once,  memory  and  invention,  and,  with 
httle  intermediate  use  of  the  pen,  form  and  pohsh 
large  masses  by  continued  meditation,  and  write  their 
productions  only  when,  in  their  own  opinion,  they 
have  completed  them.  It  is  related  of  Virgil,  that 
his  custom  was  to  pour  out  a  great  number  of  verses 
in  the  morning,  and  pass  the  day  in  retrenching  exu- 
berances, and  correcting  inaccuracies.  The  method 
of  Pope,  as  may  be  collected  from  his  translation, 
was  to  write  his  first  thoughts  in  his  first  words,  and 
gradually  to  amplify,  decorate,  rectify,  and  refine 
them. 

With  such  faculties,  and  such  dispositions,  he  ex- 
celled every  other  writer  in  poetical  prudence :  he 
wrote  in  such  a  manner  as  might  expose  him  to  few 
hazards.  He  used  almost  always  the  same  fabric 
of  verse ;  and,  indeed,  by  those  few  essays  which  he 
made  of  any  other,  he  did  not  enlarge  his  reputa- 
tion. Of  this  uniformity  the  certain  consequence 
was  readiness  and  dexterity.  By  perpetual  practice, 
language  had,  in  his  mind,  a  systematical  arrange- 
ment ;  having  always  the  same  use  for  words,  he 
had  words  so  selected  and  combined  as  to  be  ready 
at  his  call.  This  increase  of  facility  he  confessed 
himself  to  have  perceived  in  the  progress  of  his 
translation. 

But  what  was  yet  of  more  importance,  his  effu- 
sions were  always  voluntary,  and  his  subjects  chosen 
by  himself  His  independence  secured  him  from 
drudging  at  a  task,  and  laboring  upon  jj,  barren  topic ; 
he  never  exchanged  praise  for  money,  nor  opened  a 
shop  of  condolence  or  congratulation.     His  poems, 


164  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

therefore,  were  scarcely  ever  temporary.  He  suf- 
fered coronations  and  royal  marriages  to  pass  Avith- 
out  a  song ;  and  derived  no  opportunities  from  recent 
events,  or  any  popularity  from  the  accidental  dispo- 
sition of  his  readers.  He  was  never  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  soliciting  the  sun  to  shine  upon  a  birth- 
day, of  calling  the  Graces  and  Virtues  to  a  wedding, 
or  of  saying  what  multitudes  have  said  before  him. 
When  he  could  produce  nothing  new,  he  was  at  lib- 
erty to  be  silent. 

His  publications  were,  for  the  same  reason,  never 
hasty.  He  is  said  to  have  sent  nothing  to  the  press 
till  it  had,  lain  two  years  under  his  inspection ;  it  is 
at  least  certain,  that  he  ventured  nothing  without 
nice  examination.  He  suffered  the  tumult  of  imag- 
ination to  subside,  and  the  novelties  of  invention  to 
grow  familiar.  He  knew  that  the  mind  is  always 
enamored  of  its  productions,  and  did  not  trust  his 
first  fondness.  He  consulted  his  friends,  and  listened 
with  great  willingness  to  criticism ;  and,  what  was 
of  more  importance,  he  consulted  himself,  and  let 
nothing  pass  against  his  own  judgment. 

He  professed  to  have  learned  his  poetry  from  Dry- 
den,  whom,  whenever  an  opportunity  was  presented, 
he  praised,  thi'ough  his  whole  life,  with  unvaried  lib- 
erality; and,  perhaps,  his  character  may  receive 
some  illustration,  if  he  be  compared  with  his  master. 

Integrity  of  understanding,  and  nicety  of  discern- 
ment, were  not  allotted  in  a  less  proportion  to  Dry- 
den  than  to  Pope.  The  rectitude  of  Dryden's  mind 
was  sufficiently  shown  by  the  dismission  of  his  poet- 
ical prejudices,  and  the  rejection  of  unnatural 
thoughts  and  rugged  numbers.  But  Dryden  never 
desired  to  apply  all  the  judgment  that  he  had.  He 
wrote,  and  professed  to  write,  merely  for  the  people ; 
and  when  he .  pleased  others,  he  contented  himself. 
He  spent  no  time  in  struggles  to  rouse  latent  pow- 
ers ;  he  never  attempted  to  make  that  better  which 


EXTRACT    XII.  165 

was  already  good,  nor  often  to  mend  what  he  must 
know  to  be  faulty.  He  wi'ote,  as  he  tells  us,  with 
very  little  consideration :  when  occasion  or  necessity 
called  upon  him,  he  poured  out  what  the  present 
moment  happened  to  supply,  and,  Avhen  once  it  had 
passed  the  press,  ejected  it  from  his- mind ;  for  when 
he  had  no  pecuniary  interest,  he  had  no  further  so- 
licitude. 

Pope  was  not  content  to  satisfy,  he  desired  to  ex- 
cel ;  and  therefore  always  endeavored  to  do  his  best ; 
he  did  not  court  the  candor,  but  dared  the  judgment 
of  his  reader,  and,  expecting  no  indulgence  from 
others,  he  showed  none  to  himself.  He  examined 
lines  and  words  with  minute  and  punctilious  obser- 
vation, and  retouched  every  part  with  indefatigable 
diligence,  till  he  had  left  nothing  to  be  forgiven. 

For  this  reason  he  kept  his  pieces  very  long  in  his 
hands,  while  he  considered  and  reconsidered  them. 
The  only  poems  which  can  be  supposed  to  have 
been  written  with  such  regard  to  the  times  as  might 
hasten  their  publication,  were  the  two  satires  of 
"  Thirty- eight,"  of  which  Dodsley  told  me  that  they 
were  brought  to  him  by  the  author,  that  they  might 
be  fairly  copied.  "  Almost  every  line,"  he  said,  "  was 
then  written  twice  over ;  I  gave  him  a  clean  tran- 
script, which  he  sent  some  time  afterward  to  me  for 
the  press,  with  almost  every  hne  written  twice  over 
a  second  time." 

His  declaration,  that  his  care  for  his  works  ceased 
at  their  publication,  was  not  strictly  true.  His  pa- 
rental attention  never  abandoned  them;  what  he 
found  amiss  in  the  first  edition,  he  silently  corrected 
in  those  that  followed.  He  appears  to  have  revised 
the  Ihad,  and  freed  it  from  some  of  its  imperfec- 
tions ;  and  the  Essay  on  Criticism  received  many 
imjirovements  after  its  first  appearance.  It  will  sel- 
dom be  found  that  he  altered  without  adding  clear- 
ness, elegance,  or  vigor.      Pope   had  perhaps   the 


166  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

judgment  of  Dryden ;  but  Dryden  certainly  wanted 
the  diligence  of  Pope. 

In  acquired  knowledge,  the  superiority  must  be 
allowed  to  Dryden,  whose  education  was  more  scho- 
lastic, and  who,  before  he  became  an  author,  had 
been  allowed  mare  time  for  study,  with  better  means 
of  information.  His  mind  has  a  larger  range ;  and 
he  collects  his  images  and  illustrations  from  a  more 
extensive  circumference  of  science.  Dryden  knew 
more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and  Pope  in  his 
local  manners.  The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed 
by  comprehensive  speculation ;  and  those  of  Pope 
by  minute  attention.  There  is  more  dignity  in  the 
knowledge  of  Dryden,  and  more  certainty  in  that  of 
Pope. 

Poetry  was  not  the  sole  praise  of  either ;  for  both 
excelled  likewise  in  prose;  but  Pope  did  not  borrow 
his  prose  from  his  predecessor.  The  style  of  Dry- 
den is  capricious  and  varied ;  that  of  Pope  is  cautious 
and  uniform.  Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of  his  own 
mind ;  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  liis  own  rules  of 
composition.  Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and 
rapid ;  Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle. 
Dryden' s  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising  into  inequali- 
ties, and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of 
abundant  vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  sha- 
ven by  the  scythe  and  levelled  by  the  roller. 

Of  genius,  that  power  which  constitutes  a  poet ; 
that  quality  without  wliich  judgment  is  cold,  and 
knowledge  is  inert ;  that  energy  which  collects,  com- 
bines, amplifies,  and  animates ;  the  superiority  must, 
with  some  hesitation,  be  allowed  to  Dryden.  It  is 
not  to  be  inferred,  that  of  this  poetical  vigor  Pope 
had  only  a  little,  because  Dryden  had  more;  for 
every  other  writer  since  Milton  must  give  place  to 
Pope ;  and  even  of  Dryden  it  must  be  said,  that,  if 
he  has  brighter  paragraphs,  he  has  not  better  poems. 
Dryden' s  performances  were  always  hasty,  either  ex- 


EXTRACT    XIII.  167 

cited  by  some  external  occasion,  or  extorted  by  do- 
mestic necessity;  he  composed  without  considera- 
tion, and  pubhshed  without  correction.  What  his 
mind  could  supply  at  call,  or  gather  in  one  excursion, 
was  all  that  he  sought,  and  all  that  he  gave.  The 
dilatory  caution  of  Pope  enabled  him  to  condense 
his  sentiments,  to  multiply  his  images,  and  to  accu- 
mulate all  that  study  might  produce,  or  chance  might 
supply.  If  the  flights  of  Dryden,  therefore,  are 
higher.  Pope  continues  longer  on  the  wing.  If  of , 
Dryden's  fire  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Pope's  the  heat 
is  more  regular  and  constant.  Dryden  often  sur- 
passes expectation,  and  Pope  never  falls  below  it. 
Dryden  is  read  with  frequent  astonishment,  and 
Pope  with  perpetual  delight. 

The  parallel  will,  I  hope,  when  it  is  well  consid- 
ered, be  found  just ;  and  if  the  reader  should  sus- 
pect me,  as  I  suspect  ihyself,  of  some  partial  fond- 
ness for  the  memory  of  Dryden,  let  him  not  too  has- 
tily condemn  me ;  for  meditation  and  inquiry  may, 
perhaps,  show  him  the  reasonableness  of  my  deter- 
mination. 


EXTRACT   XIII. 

Advantage  of  reformatory  over  penal  Legislation. 

Goldsmith. 

It  Vere  highly  to  be  wished,  that  legislative  power 
would  direct  the  law  rather  to  reformation  than  se- 
verity; that  it  would  soon  be  convinced  that  the 
work  of  eradicating  crimes  is  not  by  making  punish- 
ment familiar,  but  formidable.  Then,  instead  of  our 
present  prisons,  which  find  or  make  men  guilty, 
which  enclose  wretches  for  the  commission  of  one 
crime,  and  return  them,  if  returned  ahve,  fitted  for 


168  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

the  perpetration  of  thousands,  —  it  were  to  be  wished 
we  had,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  places  of  peni- 
tence and  soHtude,  where  the  accused  might  be  at- 
tended by  such  as  could  give  them  repentance,  if 
guilty,  or  new  motives  to  virtue,  if  innocent.  And 
this,  but  not  the  increasing  of  punishments,  is  the 
way  to  mend  a  state :  nor  can  I  avoid  even  ques- 
tioning the  validity  of  that  right  which  social  combi- 
nations have  assumed,  of  capitally  punishing  offen- 
ces of  a  slight  nature.  In  cases  of  murder,  their 
right  is  obvious ;  as  it  is  the  duty  of  us  all,  from  the 
law  of  self-defence,  to  cut  off  that  man  who  has 
shown  a  disregard  for  the  life  of  another.  Against 
such  all  nature  rises  in  arms ;  but  it  is  not  so  against 
him  who  steals  my  property.  Natural  law  gives  me 
no  right  to  take  away  his  life,  as  by  that  the  horse 
he  steals  is  as  much  his  property  as  mine.  If,  then, 
I  have  any  right,  it  must  be  from  a  compact  made 
between  us,  that  he  who  deprives  the  other  of  his 
horse,  shall  die.  But  this  is  a  false  compact;  be- 
cause no  man  has  a  right  to  barter  his  life,  no  more 
than  take  it  away,  as  it  is  not  his  own.  And,  be- 
sides, the  compact  is  inadequate ;  and  it  would  be 
set  aside,  even  in  a  court  of  modern  equity,  as  there 
is  a  great  penalty  for  a  triffing  inconvenience ;  since 
it  is  far  better  that  two  men  should  live,  than  one 
man  should  ride.  But  a  compact  that  is  false  be- 
tween two  men,  is  equally  so  between  a  hundred 
and  a  hundred  thousand ;  for,  as  ten  millions  of  cir- 
cles can  never  make  a  square,  so  the  united  voice  of 
myriads  cannot  lend  the  smallest  foundation  to  lalse- 
hood.  It  is  thus  that  reason  speaks ;  and  untutored 
nature  says  the  same  thing.  Savages,  that  are  di- 
rected by  natural  law  alone,  axe  very  tender  of  the 
lives  of  each  other ;  they  seldom  shed  blood  but  to 
retahate  former  cruelty. 

Our  Saxon  ancestors,  fierce  as  they  were  in  war, 
had  but  few  executions  in  times  of  peace ;  and  in  all 


EXTRACT    XIII.  169 

commencing  governments,  that  have  the  print  of  na- 
ture still  strong  upon  them,  scarce  any  crime  is  held 
capital. 

It  is  among  the  citizens  of  a  refined  community, 
that  penal  laws,  wliich  are  in  the  hands  of  the  rich, 
are  laid  upon  the  poor.  Government,  while  it  grows 
older,  seems  to  acquire  the  moroseness  of  age ;  and 
as  if  our  property  were  become  dearer  in  proportion 
as  it  increased ;  as  if  the  more  enormous  our  wealth, 
the  more  extensive  our  fears,  —  all  our  possessions 
are  paled  up  with  new  edicts  every  day,  and  hung 
round  with  gibbets,  to  scare  every  invader. 

I  cannot  tell  whether  it  is  from  the  number  of  our " 
penal  laws,  or  the  licentiousness  of  our  people,  that 
this  country  should  show  more  convicts  in  a  year 
than  half  the  dominions  of  Europe  united.  Perhaps 
it  is  owing  to  both  ;  for  they  mutually  produce  each 
other.  When,  by  indiscriminate  penal  laws,  a  na- 
tion beholds  the  same  punishment  affixed  to  dissimi- 
lar degrees  of  guilt,  from  perceiving  no  distinction  in 
the  penalty,  the  people  are  led  to  lose  all  sense  of 
distinction  in  the  crime;  yet  this  distinction  is  the 
bulwark  of  all  morahty :  thus,  the  multitude  of  laws 
produces  new  vices,  and  new  vices  call  for  fresh  re- 
straints. 

It  were  to  be  wished,  then,  that  power,  instead  of 
contriving  new  laws  to  punish  vice,  instead  of  draw- 
ing hard  the  cords  of  society  till  a  convulsion  came 
to  burst  them,  instead  of  cutting  away  wretches  as 
useless,  before  we  had  tried  their  utihty,  instead  of 
converting  correction  into  vengeance,  —  it  were  to 
be  wished  that  we  tried  the  restrictive  arts  of  govern- 
ment, and  made  law  the  protector,  but  not  the  tyrant, 
of  the  people.  We  should  then  find,  that  creatures 
whose  souls  are  held  as  dross,  only  wanted  the  hand 
of  a  refiner ;  we  should  then  find  that  wretches,  now 
stuck  up  for  long  tortures,  lest  luxury  should  feel  a 
momentary  pang,  might,  if  properly  treated,  serve 
15 


170  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

to  sinew  the  state  in  times  of  danger ;  that,  as  their 
faces  are  like  ours,  their  hearts  are  so  too ;  that  few 
minds  are  so  base,  as  that  perseverance  cannot 
amend ;  that  a  man  may  see  his  last  crime  without 
dying  for  it ;  and  that  very  httle  blood  will  serve  to 
cement  our  security. 


EXTRACT  XIV. 

Fresent  Suffering  enhances  the  prospect  of  future  Feli- 
city. 

Goldsmith. 

When  I  reflect  on  the  distribution  of  good  and 
evil  here  below,  I  find  that  much  has  been  given  to 
man  to  enjoy,  yet  still  more  to  suffer.  Though  we 
should  examine  the  whole  world,  we  shall  not  find 
one  man  so  happy  as  to  have  nothing  left  to  wish 
for;  but  we  daily  see  thousands  who,  by  suicide, 
show  us  they  have  nothing  left  to  hope.  In  tliis  life, 
then,  it  appears  that  we  cannot  be  entirely  blest; 
but  yet  we  may  be  completely  miserable. 

Why  man  should  thus  feel  pain ;  why  our  wretch- 
edness should  be  requisite  in  the  formation  of  uni- 
versal fehcity ;  why,  when  all  other  systems  are  made 
perfect  by  the  perfection  of  their  subordinate  parts, 
the  great  system  should  require  for  its  perfection, 
parts  that  are  not  only  subordinate  to  others,  but  im- 
perfect in  themselves,  —  these  are  questions  that 
never  can  be  explained,  and  might  be  useless  if 
known.  On  this  subject  Providence  has  thought  fit 
to  elude  our  curiosity,  satisfied  with  granting  us  mo- 
tives to  consolation. 

In  this  situation,  man  has  called  in  the  friendly 
assistance  of  philosophy;  and  Heaven,  seeing  the 
incapacity  of  that  to  console  him,  has  given  liim  the 


EXTRACT    XIV.  171 

aid  of  religion.  The  consolations  of  philosophy  are 
very  amusing,  but  often  fallacious.  It  tells  us,  that 
life  is  filled  with  comforts,  if  we  will  but  enjoy  them ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that,  though  we  unavoidably 
have  miseries  here,  life  is  short,  and  they  will  soon 
be  over.  Thus  do  these  consolations  destroy  each 
other :  for  if  life  is  a  place  of  comfort,  its  shortness 
must  be  misery;  and  if  it  be  long,  our  griefs  are 
protracted.  Thus,  philosophy  is  weak ;  but  religion 
comforts  in  a  higher  strain.  Man  is  here,  it  tells  us, 
fitting  up  his  mind,  and  preparing  it  for  another  abode. 
When  the  good  man  leaves  the  body,  and  is  all  a 
glorious  mind,  he  will  find  he  has  been  making  him- 
self a  heaven  of  happiness  here ;  while  the  wretch 
that  has  been  maimed  and  contaminated  by  his  vices, 
shrinks  from  his  body  with  terror,  and  finds  that  he 
has  anticipated  the  vengeance  of  Heaven.  To  reh- 
gion,  then,  we  must  hold  in  every  circumstance  of 
life,  for  our  truest  comfort:  for  if  already  we  are 
happy,  it  is  a  pleasure  to  think  that  we  can  make 
that  happiness  unending ;  and,  if  we  are  miserable, 
it  is  very  consoling  to  think  that  there  is  a  place  of 
rest.  Thus,  to  the  fortunate,  religion  holds  out  a 
continuance  of  bliss ;  to  the  wretched,  a  change  from 
pain. 

But  though  religion  is  very  kind  to  all  men,  it  has 
promised  peculiar  rewards  to  the  unhappy :  the  sick, 
the  naked,  the  houseless,  the  heavy-laden,  and  the 
prisoner,  has  ever  most  frequent  promises  in  our 
sacred  law.  The  Author  of  our  religion  everywhere 
professes  himself  the  wretch's  friend;  and,  unlike 
the  false  ones  of  this  world,  bestows  all  his  caresses 
upon  the  forlorn.  The  unthinking  have  censured 
this  as  partiality,  as  a  preference  without  merit  to 
deserve  it.  But  they  never  reflect,  that  it  is  not  in 
the  power,  even  of  Heaven  itself,  to  make  the  offer 
of  unceasing  feUcity  as  great  a  gift  to  the  happy  as 
to  the  miserable.     To  the  first,  eternity  is  but  a  single 


172  SUBJECTS    FOR   EXERCISES. 

blessing ;  since,  at  most,  it  but  increases  what  they 
already  possess.  To  the  latter,  it  is  a  double  advan- 
tage ;  for  it  diminishes  their  pain  here,  and  rewards 
them  with  heavenly  bliss  hereafter. 

But  Providence  is,  in  another  respect,  kinder  to 
the  poor  than  to  the  rich ;  for,  as  it  thus  makes  the 
life  after  death  more  desirable,  so  it  smooths  the 
passage  there.  The  wretched  have  had  a  long  fami- 
liarity with  every  face  of  terror.  The  man  of  sorrow 
lays  himself  quietly  down,  with  no  possessions  to  re- 
gret, and  but  few  ties  to  stop  his  departure ;  he  feels 
only  nature's  pang  in  the  final  separation,  and'  this  is 
no  way  greater  than  he  has  often  fainted  under  be- 
fore ;  for,  after  a  certain  degree  of  pain,  every  new 
breach  that  death  opens  in  the  constitution,  nature 
kindly  covers  with  insensibility. 

Thus,  Providence  has  given  to  the  wretched  two 
advantages  over  the  happy  in  this  life,  —  greater  fe- 
licity in  dying,  and,  in  heaven,  all  that  superiority  of 
pleasure  which  arises  from  contrasted  enjoyment. 
And  this  superiority  is  no  small  advantage,  and  seems 
to  be  one  of  the  pleasures  of  the  poor  man  in  the 
parable ;  for  though  he  was  already  in  heaven,  and 
felt  all  the  raptures  it  could  give,  yet  it  was  men- 
tioned, as  an  addition  to  his  happiness,  that  he  had 
once  been  wretched,  and  now  was  comforted ;  that 
he  had  known  what  it  was  to  be  miserable,  and  now 
felt  what  it  was  to  be  happy. 

Thus,  religion  does  what  philosophy  could  never 
do:  it  shows  the  equal  dealings  of  Heaven  to  the 
happy  and  the  unhappy,  and  levels  all  human  en- 
joyments to  nearly  the  same  standard.  It  gives  to 
both  rich  and  poor  the  same  happiness  hereafter, 
and  equal  hopes  to  aspire  after  it ;  but,  if  the  rich 
have  the  advantage  of  enjoying  pleasure  here,  the 
poor  have  the  endless  satisfaction  of  knowing  what 
it  was  once  to  be  miserable,  when  crowned  with 
endless  felicity  hereafter;    and,   even  though  this 


EXTRACT    XV.  173 

should  be  called  a  small  advantage,  yet,  being  an 
eternal  one,  it  must  make  up,  by  duration,  what  the 
temporal  happiness  of  the  great  may  have  exceeded 
by  intenseness. 


EXTRACT   XV. 
True  Respectability.         Benjamin  Franklin. 

It  is  said  that  the  Persians,  in  their  ancient  con- 
stitution, had  public  schools,  in  which  virtue  was 
taught  as  a  liberal  art  or  science ;  and  it  is  certainly 
of  more  consequence  to  a  man,  that  he  has  learned 
to  govern  his  passions ;  —  in  spite  of  temptation,  to 
be  just  in  his  dealings ;  to  be  temperate  in  his  pleas- 
ures; to  support  himself  with  fortitude  under  his 
misfortunes ;  to  behave  with  prudence  in  all  his  af- 
fairs, and  in  every  circumstance  of  life :  —  I  say  it  is 
of  much  more  real  advantage  to  him,  to  be  thus 
qualified,  than  to  be  a  master  of  all  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences in  the  world.  —  Virtue  alone  is  sufficient  to 
make  a  man  great,  glorious,  and  happy. 

He  that  is  acquainted  with  Cato,  as  I  am,  cannot 
help  thinking  as  I  do  now,  and  will  acknowledge  he 
deserves  the  name,  without  being  honored  by  it. 
Cato  is  a  man  whom  fortune  has  placed  in  the  most 
obscure  part  of  the  country.  His  circumstances  are 
such  as  only  put  him  above  necessity,  without  af- 
fording him  many  superfluities :  yet  who  is  greater 
than  Cato? 

I  happened,  but  the  other  day,  to  be  at  a  house  in 
town,  where,  among  others,  were  met  men  of  the 
most  note  in  this  place.  Cato  had  business  with 
some  of  them,  and  knocked  at  the  door.  The  most 
trifling  actions  of  a  man,  in  my  opinion,  as  well  as 
the  smallest  features  and  hneaments  of  the  face, 
15* 


174  SUBJECTS    FOR   EXEUCISES. 

give  a  nice  observer  some  notion  of  his  mind.  Me- 
thought,  he  rapped  in  such  a  peculiar  manner  as 
seemed,  of  itself,  to  express  there  was  one  who  de- 
served as  well  as  desired  admission.  He  appeared 
in  the  plainest  country  garb :  his  great-coat  was 
coarse,  and  looked  old  and  threadbare ;  his  linen  was 
homespun ;  his  beard,  perhaps,  of  seven  days' 
growth ;  his  shoes  thick  and  heavy ;  and  every  part 
of  his  dress  corresponding. 

Why  was  this  man  received  with  such  concurring 
respect  from  every  person  in  the  room,  even  from 
those  who  had  never  known  or  seen  him  before  ?  It 
was  not  an  exquisite  form  of  person,  or  grandeur  of 
dress,  that  struck  us  with  admiration.  I  believe 
long  habits  of  virtue  have  a  sensible  effect  on  the 
countenance.  There  was  something  in  the  air  of  his 
face,  that  manifested  the  true  greatness  of  his  mind; 
which  likewise  appeared  in  all  he  said,  and  in  every 
part  of  his  behavior,  obliging  us  to  regard  him  with  a 
kind  of  veneration. 

His  aspect  is  sweetened  with  humanity  and  be- 
nevolence, and,  at  the  same  time,  emboldened  with 
resolution,  equally  free  from  diffident  bashfulness 
and  an  unbecoming  assurance.  The  consciousness 
of  his  own  innate  worth  and  unshaken  integrity,  ren- 
ders him  calm  and  undaunted  in  presence  of  the 
greatest  and  most  powerful,  and  upon  the  most  ex- 
traordinary occasions.  His  strict  justice  and  known 
impartiality  make  him  the  arbitrator  and  decider  of 
all  differences  that  arise,  for  many  miles  around  him, 
without  putting  his  neighbors  to  the  charge,  perplex- 
ity, and  uncertainty  of  lawsuits. 

He  always  speaks  the  thing  he  means,  which  he 
is  never  afraid  or  ashamed  to  do,  because  he  always 
knows  he  means  well,  and  therefore  is  never  obliged 
to  blush,  and  feel  the  confusion  of  finding  himself 
detected  in  the  meanness  of  a  falsehood.  He  never 
contrives  ill  against  his  neighbor,  and  therefore  is 


EXTRACT    XV.  175 

never  seen  with  a  lowering,  suspicious  aspect.  A  • 
mixture  of  innocence  and  wisdom  makes  him  ever 
seriously  cheerful.  His  generous  hospitality  to 
strangers,  according  to  his  ability,  his  goodness,  his 
charity,  his  courage  in  the  cause  of  the  oppressed, 
his  fidelity  in  friendship,  his  humility,  his  honesty 
and  sincerity,  his  moderation,  his  loyalty  to  the  gov- 
ernment, his  piety,  his  temperance,  his  love  to  man- 
kind, his  magnanimity,  his  public  spiritedness,  and, 
in  fine,  his  consummate  virtue,  make  him  justly  de- 
serve to  be  esteemed  the  glory  of  his  country. 

Almost  every  man  has  a  strong  natural  desire  of 
being  valued  and  esteemed  by  the  rest  of  his  spe- 
cies. But  I  am  concerned  and  grieved  to  see  how 
few  fall  into  the  right  and  only  infallible  method  of 
becoming  so.  That  laudable  ambition  is  too  com- 
monly misapplied,  and  often  ill  employed.  Some,  to 
make  themselves  considerable,  pursue  learning; 
others  grasp  at  wealth ;  some  aim  at  being  thought 
witty ;  and  others  are  only  careful  to  make  the  most 
of  a  handsome  person.  But  what  is  wit,  or  wealth, 
or  form,  or  learning,  when  compared  with  virtue  ? 

It  is  true  we  love  the  handsome,  we  applaud  the 
learned,  and  we  fear  the  rich  and  powerful ;  but  we 
-even  worship  and  adore  the  virtuous.  Nor  is  it 
strange ;  since  men  of  virtue  are  so  rare,  —  so  very 
rare  to  be  found.  If  we  were  as  industrious  to  be- 
come good,  as  to  make  ourselves  great,  we  should 
become  really  great  by  being  good ;  and  the  number 
of  valuable  men  would  be  much  increased.  But  it 
is  a  grand  mistake  to  think  of  being  great  without 
goodness ;  and  I  pronounce  it  as  certain,  that  there 
was  never  yet  a  truly  great  man  that  was  not,  at  the 
same  time,  truly  virtuous. 


176  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

EXTRACT   XVI. 

Ridicule.  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Kocliefoncauld  tells  us,  somewhere  in  his  Me- 
moirs, that  the  prince  of  Conde  delighted  much  in 
ridicule,  and  used  frequently  to  shut  himself  up,  for 
half  a  day  together,  in  his  chamber,  with  a  gentle- 
man who  was  his  favorite,  purposely  to  divert  him- 
self with  examining  what  was  the  foible,  or  ridicu- 
lous side,  of  every  noted  person  in  the  court.  That 
gentleman  said,  afterwards,  in  some  company,  that 
he  thought  nothing  was  more  ridiculous  in  anybody, 
than  this  same  humor  in  the  prince ;  and  I  am  some- 
what inclined  to  be  of  this  opinion. 

The  general  tendency  there  is  among  us  to  this 
embellishment,  (which  I  fear  has  too  often  imposed 
upon  my  loving  countrymen,  instead  of  wit,)  and  the 
applause  it  meets  with  from  a  rising  generation,  fill 
me  with  fearful  apprehensions  for  the  future  reputa- 
tion of  my  country.  A  young  man  of  modesty, 
(which  is  the  most  certain  indication  of  large  capaci- 
ties,) is  hereby  discouraged  from  attempting  to  make 
any  figure  in  life.  His  apprehension  of  being  out- 
laughed,  will  force  him  to  continue  in  a  restless  ob- 
scurity, without  having  an  opportunity  of  knowing 
his  own  merit  himself,  or  discovering  it  to  the  world, 
rather  than  venture  to  expose  himself  in  a  place 
where  a  pun  or  a  sneer  shall  pass  for  wit,  noise  for 
reason,  and  the  strength  of  the  argument  be  judged 
of  by  that  of  the  lungs. 

Among  these  witty  gentlemen  let  us  take  a  view 
of  Kidentius.  What  a  contemptible  figure  does  he 
make  with  his  train  of  paltry  admirers  !  This  wight 
shall  give  himself  an  hour's  diversion  with  the  cock 
of  a  man's  hat,  the  heels  of  his  shoes,  an  unguarded 
expression  in  his  discourse,  or  even  some  personal 


EXTRACT    XVII.  177 

defect ;  and  the  height  of  his  low  ambition  is  to  put 
some  one  of  the  company  to  the  bhish,  who  perhaps 
must  pay  an  equal  share  of  the  reckoning  with  him- 
self 

If  such  a  fellow  makes  laughing  the  sole  end  and 
purpose  of  his  hfe,  if  it  is  necessary  to  his  constitu- 
tion, or  if  he  has  a  great  desire  of  growing  suddenly 
fat,  let  him  eat :  let  him  give  public  notice  where 
any  dull,  stupid  rogues  may  get  a  quart  of  fourpenny 
for  being  laughed  at.  But  it  is  barbarously  unhand- 
some, when  friends  meet  for  the  benefit  of  conversa- 
tion, and  a  proper  relaxation  from  business,  that  one 
should  be  the  butt  of  the  company,  and  four  men 
made  merry  at  the  cost  of  the  fifth. 

How  different  from  this  character  is  that  of  the 
good-natured,  gay  Eugenius,  who  never  spoke  yet 
but  with  a  design  to  divert  and  please ;  and  who  was 
never  yet  balked  in  his  intention !  Eugenius  takes 
more  delight  in  applying  the  wit  of  his  friends,  than 
in  being  admired  himself;  and  if  any  one  of  the 
company  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  touched  a  little 
too  nearly,  he  will  make  use  of  some  ingenious  arti- 
fice to  turn  the  edge  of  ridicule  another  way ;  choos- 
ing rather  to  make  himself  a  public  jest,  than  be  at 
the  pain  of  seeing  his  friend  in  confusion. 


EXTRACT   XVII. 

The  Ugly  Leg.  Benjamin  Franklin. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  people  in  the  world,  who, 
with  equal  degrees  of  health  and  wealth,  and  the 
other  comforts  of  life,  become,  the  one  happy,  and 
the  other  miserable.  This  arises  very  much  from 
the  different  views  in  which  they  consider  tilings, 


178  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

persons,  and  events ;  and  the  effect  of  those  differ- 
ent views  upon  their  own  mind. 

In  whatever  situation  men  can  be  placed,  they 
may  find  conveniences  and  inconveniences :  in  what- 
ever company,  they  may  find  persons  and  conversa- 
tion more  or  less  pleasing ;  at  whatever  table,  they 
may  meet  with  meats  and  drinks  of  better  and  worse 
taste,  dishes  better  and  worse  dressed ;  in  whatever 
climate,  they  will  find  good  and  bad  weather ;  under 
whatever  government,  they  may  find  good  and  bad 
laws,  and  good  and  bad  administration  of  those  laws ; 
in  whatever  poem,  or  work  of  genius,  they  may  see 
faults  and  beauties ;  in  almost  every  face,  and  every 
person,  they  may  discover  fine  features  and  defects, 
good  and  bad  quahties. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  two  sorts  of  people 
above  mentioned  fix  their  attention ;  those  who  are 
disposed  to  be  happy,  on  the  conveniences  of  things, 
the  pleasant  parts  of  conversation,  the  well-dressed 
dishes,  the  goodness  of  the  wines,  or  the  fine  weath- 
er, and  enjoy  all  with  cheerfulness.  Those  who  are 
to  be  unappy,  think  and  speak  only  of  the  contraries. 
Hence  they  are  continually  discontented  themselves, 
and,  by  their  remarks,  sour  the  pleasures  of  society, 
offend  personally  many  people,  and  make  themselves 
everywhere  disagreeable. 

If  this  turn  of  mind  was  founded  in  nature,  such 
unhappy  persons  would  be  the  more  to  be  pitied. 
But  as  the  disposition  to  criticise,  and  to  be  disgust- 
ed, is  perhaps,  taken  up  originally  by  imitation,  and 
is,  unawares,  grown  into  a  habit,  wliich,  though  at 
present  strong,  may  nevertheless  be  cured,  when 
those  who  have  it  are  convinced  of  its  bad  effects  on 
their  felicity;  I  hope  this  little  admonition  may  be 
of  service  to  them,  and  put  them  on  changing  a 
habit,  which  though,  in  the  exercise,  it  is  chiefly  an 
act  of  imagination,  yet  has  serious  consequences  in 
life,  as  it  brings  on  real  griefs  and  misfortunes.     For, 


EXTRACT    XVII.  179 

as  many  are  offended  by,  and  nobody  loves,  this  sort 
of  people,  no  one  shows  them  more  than  the  most 
common  civility  and  respect,  and  scarcely  that ;  and 
this  frequently  puts  them  out  of  humor,  and  draws 
them  into  disputes  and  contentions. 

If  they  aim  at  attaining  some  advantage  in  rank 
or  fortune,  nobody  wishes  them  success,  or  will  stir 
a  step  or  speak  a  word,  to  favor  their  pretensions. 
If  they  incur  public  censure  or  disgrace,  no  one  will 
defend  or  excuse,  and  many  join  to  aggravate  their 
misconduct,  and  render  them  completely  odious.  If 
these  people  will  not  change  this  bad  habit,  and  con- 
descend to  be  pleased  with  what  is  pleasing,  with- 
out fretting  themselves  and  others  about  the  contra- 
ries, it  is  good  for  others  to  avoid  an  acquaintance 
with  them,  which  is  always  disagreeable,  and  some- 
times very  inconvenient,  especially  when  one  finds 
oneself  entangled  in  their  quarrels. 

An  old  philosopliical  friend  of  mine  was  gi-own, 
from  experience,  very  cautious  in  this  particular,  and 
carefully  avoided  any  intimacy  with  such  people. 
He  had,  like  other  philosophers,  a  thermometer,  to 
show  him  the  heat  of  the  weather,  and  a  barometer, 
to  mark  when  it  was  likely  to  prove  good  or  bad; 
but  there  being  no  instrument  invented  to  discover, 
at  first  sight,  this  unpleasing  disposition  in  a  person, 
he,  for  that  purpose,  made  use  of  his  legs ;  one  of 
which  was  remarkably  handsome,  the  other,  by  some 
accident,  crooked  and  deformed.  If  a  stranger,  at 
the  fijrst  interview,  regarded  his  ugly  leg  more  than 
his  handsome  one,  he  doubted  him.  If  he  spoke  of 
it,  and  took  no  notice  of  the  handsome  leg,  that  was 
sufficient  to  determine  my  pliilosopher  to  have  no 
farther  acquaintance  with  him. 

Every  body  has  not  this  two-legged  instrument; 
but  eveiy  one,  with  a  little  attention,  may  observe 
signs  of  that  carping,  fault-finding  disposition,  and 
take  the  same  resolution  of  avoicliug  the  acquaint- 


180  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

ance  of  those  infected  w^ith  it.  I  therefore  advise 
those  critical,  querulous,  discontented,  unhappy  peo- 
ple, that,  if  they  wish  to  be  respected  and  beloved 
by  others,  and  happy  in  themselves,  they  should 
leave  off  looking  at  the  ugly  leg. 


EXTRACT  XVIII. 

Luxury,  Idleness,  and  Industry.         Franklin. 

It  is  wonderful  how  preposterously  the  affairs  of 
this  world  are  managed.  Naturally  one  would  ima- 
gine that  the  interest  of  a  few  individuals  should 
give  way  to  general  interest.  But  individuals  man- 
age their  affairs  with  so  much  more  application,  in- 
dustry, and  address,  than  the  public  do  theirs,  that 
general  interest  most  commonly  gives  way  to  j)arti- 
cular. 

We  assemble  parliaments  and  councils,  to  have 
the  benefit  of  their  collected  wisdom ;  but  we  neces- 
sarily have,  at  the  same  time,  the  inconvenience  of 
their  collected  passions,  prejudices,  and  private  in- 
terests. By  the  help  of  these,  artful  men  overpower 
their  wisdom,  and  dupe  its  possessors;  and,  if  we 
may  judge  by  the  acts,  ari'ests,  and  edicts,  all  the 
world  over,  for  regulating  commerce,  an  assembly  of 
great  men  is  the  greatest  fool  upon  earth. 

I  have  not  yet,  indeed,  thought  of  a  remedy  for 
luxury.  I  am  not  sure  that,  in  a  great  state,  it  is 
capable  of  a  remedy,  nor  that  the  evil  is  in  itself  al- 
ways so  great  as  it  is  represented.  Suppose  we  in- 
clude, in  the  definition  of  luxury,  all  unnecessary  ex- 
pense ;  and  then  let  us  consider  whether  laws  to 
prevent  such  expense  arc  possible  to  be  executed  in 
a  great  country,  and  whether,  if  they  could  be  exe- 
cuted, our  people  generally  would  be  happier,  or  even 


EXTRACT    XVIII.  181 

richer.  Is  not  the  hope  of  being,  one  day,  able  to 
purchase  and  enjoy  hixuries,  a  great  spur  to  labor 
and  industry?  May  not  luxury,  therefore,  produce 
more  than  it  consumes,  if,  without  such  a  spur,  peo- 
ple would  be,  as  they  are  naturally  enough  inclined 
to  be,  lazy  and  indolent  ? 

In  our  commercial  towns  upon  the  seacoast,  for- 
tunes will  occasionally  be  made.  Some  of  those  who 
grow  rich,  will  be  prudent,  live  within  bounds,  and 
preserve  what  they  have  gained  for  their  posterity : 
others,  fond  of  showing  their  wealth,  will  be  extra- 
vagant, and  ruin  themselves.  Laws  cannot  prevent 
this ;  and,  perhaps,  it  is  not  always  an  evil  to  the 
public.  A  shilling  spent  idly  by  a  fool,  may  be  pick- 
ed up  by  a  wise  person  who  knows  better  what  to 
do  with  it.  It  is  therefore  not  lost.  A  vain,  silly 
fellow  builds  a  fine  house,  furnishes  it  richly,  lives 
m  it  expensively,  and,  in  a  few  years,  ruins  himself. 
But  the  masons,  carpenters,  smiths,  and  other  honest 
tradesmen,  have  been,  by  his  employ,  assisted  in 
maintaining  and  raising  their  families ;  the  farmer 
has  been  paid  for  his  labor,  and  encouraged ;  and  the 
estate  is  now  in  better  hands. 

In  some  cases,  indeed,  certain  modes  of  luxury 
may  be  a  pubhc  evil,  in  the  same  manner  as  it  is  a 
private  one.  If  there  be,  for  instance,  a  nation  that 
exports  its  beef  and  linen,  to  pay  for  the  importation 
of  claret  and  porter,  while  a  great  part  of  its  people 
live  upon  potatoes,  and  wear  no  shirts,  wherein  does 
it  differ  from  the  sot  who  lets  liis  family  starve,  and 
sells  his  clothes  to  buy  drink  ?  Our  American  com- 
merce is,  I  confess,  a  little  in  this  way.  We  sell 
our  victuals  to  the  islands  for  rum  and  sugar,  —  the 
substantial  necessaries  of  hfe  for  superfluities.  But 
we  have  plenty,  and  live  well  nevertheless ;  though, 
by  being  soberer,  we  might  be  richer. 

The  vast  quantity  of  forest  land  we  have  yet  to 
clear,  and  put  in  order  for  cultivation,  will,  for  a  long 
IG 


182  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

time,  keep  the  body  of  our  nation  laborious  and  fru- 
gal. Forming  an  opinion  of  our  people  and  their 
manners,  by  what  we  have  seen  among  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  seaports,  is  judging  from  an  improper 
sample.  The  people  of  the  trading  towns  may  be 
rich  and  luxurious,  while  the  country  possesses  all 
the  virtues  that  tend  to  promote  happiness  and  pub- 
lic prosperity.  Those  towns  are  not  much  regarded 
by  the  country;  they  are  hardly  considered  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  States ;  and  the  experience  of 
the  last  war  has  shown  that  their  being  in  possession 
of  the  enemy  did  not  necessarily  draw  on  the  sub- 
jection of  the  country,  which  bravely  continued  to 
maintain  its  freedom  and  independence,  notwith- 
standing. 

It  has  been  computed  by  some  political  arithmeti- 
cian, that  if  every  man  and  woman  would  work  for 
four  hours,  each  day,  on  something  useful,  that  labor 
would  produce  sufficient  to  procure  all  the  neces- 
saries and  comforts  of  Ufe ;  want  and  misery  would 
be  banished  out  of  the  world ;  and  the  rest  of  the 
twenty-four  hours  might  be  leisure  and  pleasure. 

What  occasions,  then,  so  much  want  and  misery  ? 
It  is  the  employment  of  men  and  women  in  works 
that  produce  neither  the  necessaries  nor  the  conve- 
niences of  life,  —  who,  with  them  who  do  nothing, 
consume  necessaries  raised  by  the  laborious. 

To  explain  this.  —  The  first  elements  of  wealth 
are  obtained  by  labor,  from  the  earth  and  waters.  I 
have  land,  and  raise  corn.  With  this  if  I  feed  a 
family  that  does  nothing,  my  corn  will  be  consumed, 
and,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  I  shall  be  no  richer  than 
I  was  at  the  beginning.  But  if,  while  I  feed  them, 
I  employ  them,  some  in  spinning,  others  in  making 
bricks,  etc.,  for  building,  the  value  of  my  corn  will 
be  arrested,  and  remain  with  me;  and,  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  we  may  all  be  better  clothed  and  better 
lodged.     And  if,  instead  of  employing  a  man  whom 


EXTRACT    XVIII.  183 

I  feed,  in  making  bricks,  I  employ  liim  in  fiddling 
for  me,  the  corn  he  eats  is  gone ;  and  no  part  of  his 
manufacture  remains  to  augment  the  wealth  and 
convenience  of  the  family.  I  shall  therefore  be  the 
poorer  for  this  fiddling  man,  unless  the  rest  of  my 
family  work  more  or  eat  less,  to  make  up  the  defi- 
ciency he  occasions. 

Look  round  the  world,  and  see  the  millions  em- 
ployed in  doing  nothing,  or  in  something  that 
amounts  to  nothing,  when  the  necessaries  and  con- 
veniences of  life  are  in  question.  What  is  the  bulk 
of  commerce,  for  which  we  fight  and  destroy  each 
other,  but  the  toil  of  millions  for  superfluities,  to  the 
great  hazard  and  loss  of  many  lives,  by  the  constant 
dangers  of  the  sea  ?  How  much  labor  is  spent  in 
building  and  fitting  great  ships,  to  go  to  China  and 
Arabia,  for  tea  and  coffee,  to  the  West  Indies  for 
sugar,  to  America  for  tobacco !  These  things  can- 
not be  called  the  necessaries  of  life ;  for  our  ances- 
tors lived  very  comfortably  without  them. 

A  question  may  be  asked ;  could  all  these  people 
now  employed  in  raising,  making,  or  carrying  super- 
fluities, be  subsisted  by  raising  necessaries  ?  I  think 
they  might.  The  world  is  large,  and  a  great  part  of 
it  still  uncultivated.  Many  hundred  millions  of  acres 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  are  still  in  a  forest; 
and  a  great  deal  even  in  Europe.  On  a  hundred 
acres  of  this  forest  a  man  might  become  a  substan- 
tial farmer ;  and  a  hundred  thousand  men,  employed 
in  clearing  each  his  hundred  acres,  would  hardly 
brighten  a  spot  big  enough  to  be  visible  from  the 
moon,  unless  with  Herschel's  telescope ;  so  vast  are 
the  regions  still  in  wood. 

It  is,  however,  some  comfort  to  reflect,  that,  upon 
the  whole,  the  quantity  of  industry  and  prudence 
among  mankind  exceeds  the  quantity  of  idleness  and 
folly.  Hence  the  increase  of  good  buildings,  farms 
cultivated,  and  populous  cities  filled  with  wealth,  all 


184  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXEECISES. 

over  Europe,  which,  a  few  ages  since,  were  only  to 
be  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean ;  and 
this  notwithstanding  the  mad  wars  continually  rag- 
ing, by  which  are  often  destroyed,  in  one  year,  the 
works  of  many  years'  peace ;  so  that  we  may  hope 
the  luxury  of  a  few  merchants  on  the  coast  will  not 
be  the  ruin  of  America. 

One  reflection  more,  and  I  will  end  this  long  ram- 
bling paper.  —  Almost  all  parts  of  our  bodies  require 
some  expense;  the  feet  demand  shoes;  the  legs, 
stockings;  the  rest  of  the  body  clothing;  and  the 
stomach  a  good  deal  of  victuals.  Our  eyes,  though 
exceedingly  useful,  ask,  when  reasonable,  only  the 
cheap  assistance  of  spectacles,  which  could  not 
much  impair  our  finances.  But  the  eyes  of  other 
people  are  the  eyes  that  ruin  us.  If  all  but  myself 
were  blind,  I  should  want  neither  fine  clothes,  fine 
houses,  nor  fine  furniture. 


EXTRACT   XIX. 

The  Influence  ofprofessional  Associations,  on  the  sense 
of  Beauty.  Rev.  Dr.  Alison. 

No  man,  in  general,  is  sensible  to  beauty  in  those 
subjects  with  regard  to  which  he  has  not  previous 
ideas.  The  beauty  of  a  theory,  or  of  a  relic  of  anti- 
quity, is  uninteUigible  to  a  peasant.  The  charms  of 
the  country  are  altogether  lost  upon  a  citizen  who 
has  passed  his  life  in  town.  In  the  same  manner, 
the  more  that  our  ideas  are  increased,  or  our  concep- 
tions extended,  upon  any  subject,  the  greater  the 
number  of  associations  we  connect  with  it,  the  stron- 
ger is  the  emotion  of  sublimity  or  beauty  we  receive 
from  it. 

The  pleasure,  for  instance,  which  the  generality 


EXTRACT    XIX.  185 

of  mankind  receive  from  any  celebrated  painting,  is 
trifling,  when  compared  to  that  which  a  painter  feels, 
if  he  is  a  man  of  any  common  degree  of  candor. 
What  is  to  them  only  an  accurate  representation  of 
nature,  is  to  him  a  beautiful  exertion  of  genius,  and 
a  perfect  display  of  art.  The  difficulties  which  occur 
to  his  mind  in  tlie  design  and  execution  of  such  a 
performance,  and  the  testimonies  of  skill,  of  taste, 
and  of  invention,  which  the  accompHshment  of  it 
exhibits,  excite  a  variety  of  emotions  in  his  breast, 
of  which  the  common  spectator  is  altogether  unsus- 
ceptible ;  and  the  admiration  with  which  he  thus 
contemplates  the  genius  and  art  of  the  painter,  blends 
itself  with  the  peculiar  emotions  which  the  picture 
itself  can  produce,  and  enhances  to  him  every  beau- 
ty that  it  may  possess. 

The  beauty  of  any  scene  in  nature,  is  seldom  so 
striking  to  others  as  it  is  to  a  landscape-painter,  or 
to  those  who  profess  the  beautiful  art  of  laying  out 
grounds.  The  difficulties  both  of  invention  and  exe- 
cution, which  from  their  professions  are  familiar  to 
them,  render  the  profusion  with  which  nature  often 
scatters  the  most  picturesque  beauties,  little  less  than 
miraculous.  Every  little  circumstance  of  form  and 
perspective,  and  light  and  shade,  which  is  unnoticed 
by  a  common  eye,  is  important  in  theirs,  and,  ming- 
ling in  their  minds  the  ideas  of  difficulty  and  facihty 
n  overcoming  it,  produces  altogether  an  emotion  of 
delight,  incomparably  more  animated  than  any  that 
the  generality  of  mankind  usually  derive  from  it. 

The  delight  which  most  men  of  education  receive 
from  the  consideration  of  antiquity,  and  the  beauty 
that  they  discover  in  every  object  which  is  connect- 
ed with  ancient  times,  is,  in  a  great  measure,  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  same  cause.  The  antiquarian,  in  his 
cabinet,  surrounded  by  the  relics  of  former  ages, 
seems  to  himself  to  be  removed  to  periods  that  are 
long  since  past,  and  indulges  in  the  imagination  of 
1G=^ 


186  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

living  in  a  world  which,  by  a  very  natural  land  of 
prejudice,  we  are  always  wiUing  to  beheve  was  both 
wiser  and  better  than  the  present.  All  that  is  vene- 
rable or  laudable  in  the  history  of  those  times,  pre- 
sents itself  to  his  memory.  The  gallantry,  the  hero- 
ism, the  patriotism  of  antiquity,  rise  again  before  his 
view,  softened  by  the  obscurity  in  which  they  are 
involved,  and  rendered  more  seducing  to  the  imagi- 
nation by  that  obscurity  itself,  which,  while  it  mingles 
a  sentiment  of  regret  amid  his  pursuits,  serves,  at 
the  same  time,  to  stimulate  his  fancy  to  fill  up,  by  its 
own  creation,  those  long  intervals  of  time  of  which 
history  has  preserved  no  record.  The  relics  he  con- 
templates seem  to  approach  him  still  nearer  to  the 
ages  of  his  regard.  The  dress,  the  furniture,  the 
arms  of  the  times,  are  so  many  assistances  to  his 
imagination,  in  guiding  or  directing  its  exercise,  and, 
offering  him  a  thousand  sources  of  imagery,  provide 
him  with  an  almost  inexhaustible  field  in  which  liis 
memory  and  his  fancy  may  expatiate.  There  are 
few  men  who  have  not  felt  somewhat,  at  least,  of 
the  delight  of  such  an  employment.  There  is  no 
man  in  the  least  acquainted  with  the  liistory  of  anti- 
quity, who  does  not  love  to  let  his  imagination  loose 
on  the  prospect  of  its  remains,  and  to  whom  they  are 
not,  in  some  measure,  sacred,  from  the  innumerable 
images  which  they  bring.  Even  the  peasant,  whose 
knowledge  of  former  times  extends  but  to  a  few 
generations,  has  yet,  in  his  village,  some  monument 
of  the  deeds  or  virtues  of  his  forefathers ;  and  cher- 
ishes with  a  fond  veneration  the  memorial  of  those 
good  old  times  to  which  his  imagination  returns  with 
delight,  and  of  which  he  loves  to  recount  the  simple 
tales  that  tradition  has  brought  him. 

And  what  is  it  that  constitutes  that  emotion  of 
sublime  delight,  which  eveiy  man  of  common  sensi- 
bility feels  upon  the  first  prospect  of  Rome  ?  It  is 
not  the  scene  of  destruction  which  is  before  him. 


EXTRACT    XX.  187 

It  is  not  the  Tiber,  diminished  in  his  imagination  to 
a  paltry  stream,  and  stagnating  amid  the  ruins  of 
that  magnificence  which  it  once  adorned.  It  is  not 
the  triumph  of  superstition  over  the  wreck  of  human 
greatness,  and  its  monuments  erected  upon  the  very 
spot  where  the  first  honors  of  humanity  have  been 
gained.  It  is  ancient  Rome  w^liich  fills  his  imagina- 
tion. It  is  the  country  of  Ca3sar,  and  Cicero,  and 
Virgil,  which  is  before  him.  It  is  the  mistress  of  the 
world  w^hich  he  sees,  and  who  seems  to  him  to  rise 
again  from  her  tomb,  to  give  laws  to  the  universe. 
All  that  the  labors  of  his  youth,  or  the  studies  of  his 
maturer  age  have  acquired,  with  regard  to  the  his- 
tory of  this  great  people,  opens  at  once  before  his 
imagination,  and  presents  him  with  a  field  of  high 
and  solemn  imagery,  which  can  never  be  exhausted. 
Take  from  him  these  associations,  conceal  from  him 
that  it  is  Rome  that  he  sees,  and  how  difierent  would 
be  liis  emotion ! 


EXTRACT   XX. 

The  Beauty  of  the  Human  Form.     Rev.  Dr.  Alison. 

The  human  form  is  not  a  simple  form.  It  is  a 
complicated  frame  composed  of  many  parts,  in  which 
some  relation  of  these  parts  is  required  by  every  eye, 
and  from  which  relation,  beauty  or  deformity  is  the 
actual  and  experienced  result.  If  the  positive  beau- 
ty of  the  human  form  arises,  in  all  various  and  differ- 
ent cases,  from  its  expression  of  character  of  mind, 
then  it  ought  to  follow,  that  the  beauty  of  composi- 
tion in  this  complicated  form,  ought,  as  in  all  other 
cases  of  composition,  to  arise  from  the  preservation 
of  unity  of  character ;  that  no  forms  or  proportions 
ought  to  be  felt  as  beautiful,  but  those  which  accord 


188  SUBJECTS    FOR   EXERCISES. 

with  this  central  expression,  and  that  different  forms 
and  different  proportions  ought  to  be  felt  as  beauti- 
ful, whenever  they  are  significant  of  the  characters 
we  wish  and  expect.  —  If  these  are  found  to  be 
facts,  I  apprehend  it  will  not  only  be  sufficient  to 
show  the  real  origin  of  the  beauty  of  form,  but  to  es- 
tablish some  more  definite  conceptions,  with  regard 
to  the  nature  of  the  beauty  we  experience  in  these 
relations  of  the  parts  of  the  human  form. 

That  the  beauty  of  composition  in  the  form  of 
man,  is  determined  by  this  unity  of  character  or  ex- 
pression, or,  in  other  words,  that  the  principle  by 
which  we  judge  of  the  beauty  of  any  member  or 
members  of  the  form,  is  that  of  their  correspondence 
to  the  general  expression,  is  a  proposition  which 
seems  very  consistent  with  common  experience. 
Every  form  which  we  remark  for  beauty,  has  always 
some  specific  character  which  is  the  foundation  of 
our  admiration.  It  is  either  manly,  or  gallant,  or  ma- 
jestic, or  dignified ;  or  feminine,  or  gentle,  or  modest, 
or  delicate :  as  such  we  feel,  and  as  such  we  describe 
it.  It  seldom  happens,  however,  in  actual  life,  that 
any  form  of  this  kind  appears  to  us  in  which  we  are 
not  conscious  of  some  defect,  —  of  some  limb  or 
member  being  unsuitable  to  the  rest,  and  affecting 
us  with  some  sense  of  pain  or  dissatisfaction.  If  we 
ask  ourselves  what  is  the  reason  of  our  disapproba- 
tion, or  if  we  attend  to  the  language  of  others,  we 
shall  find,  I  think,  that  it  is  always  resolvable  into 
the  want  of  correspondent  expression,  and  that  the 
imaginary  attempts  we  make  to  rectify  it,  consist  in 
new-modelling  the  faulty  members,  so  as  to  accord 
with  this  expression.  It  is  painful  to  us,  thus,  to  see 
a  form  of  general  delicacy  with  any  strong  muscular 
limb,  to  see  a  bust  of  manliness  or  strength,  -with 
limbs  either  short  or  attenuated,  or  limbs  of  great 
strength  and  vigor,  with  a  thin  and  hectic  form  of 
body.     In  representations  of  the  form  of  woman,  it 


EXTRACT    XX.  189 

is,  in  the  same  manner,  painful  to  observe  any  limb 
of  masculine  size  or  strength ;  and  so  delicate  is  even 
the  rudest  feeling  upon  this  subject,  that  the  form 
of  a  foot,  or  of  a  finger,  can  detract  from  the  most 
perfect  beauty.  When  we  have  the  misfortune  to 
witness  any  defect  of  this  kind,  we  wish,  —  and  per- 
haps we  express  our  wishes,  —  to  remedy  it;  and 
what  is  the  object  of  our  wishes?  Is  it  not  to  re- 
duce the  too  powerful,  or  to  increase  the  too  atten- 
uated limb  to  the  general  character  of  the  form,  to 
maintain  throughout  it  that  unity  of  expression  which 
is  necessary  to  our  complete  emotion ;  and  if,  either 
in  idea  or  in  imitation,  we  can  succeed  in  these  wish- 
es, do  we  not  feel,  ourselves,  and  teach  others  to 
feel,  the  full  effect  of  that  beautiful  form  which  na- 
ture or  art  has  left  imperfect  ?  Is  it  not  consistent, 
in  the  same  manner,  with  general  experience,  that, 
in  describing  a  beautiful  form  to  those  who  have  not 
seen  it,  we  always  begin  by  stating  the  character 
which  it  signifies ;  and,  if  we  end  by  asserting  that 
all  the  various  members  of  the  form  correspond  in 
maintaining  this  characteristic  expression,  do  we  not 
succeed  in  convincing  them  that  the  form  is  beauti- 
ful, and  that  its  composition  is  as  perfect  as  its  ex- 
pression ? 

The  standard,  I  believe,  by  which  we  chiefly  esti- 
mate the  general  character  of  the  form,  is  that  of  the 
expression  of  the  countenance.  We  very  seldom,  I 
apprehend,  pretend  to  judge  of  the  beauty  of  the  form 
of  any  person,  whose  countenance  we  have  not  seen. 
Of  a  mutilated  statue  of  which  the  head  was  lost, 
we  might  speak  securely  of  the  propriety  of  its  mere 
physical  proportions,  but  I  think  we  should  not  speak 
with  equal  security  of  the  beauty  of  the  composition 
of  its  members.  In  studying  any  of  the  greater  forms 
of  statuary  or  painting,  I  conceive,  in  the  same  man- 
ner, that  we  shall  feel  in  ourselves,  and  that  we  may 
observe  in  others,  that  our  eye  is  perpetually  moving 


190  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

from  the  countenance  to  the  form ;  that  until  we  feel 
distinctly  the  character  which  the  countenance  ex- 
l^resses,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  conceive  the  meaning  of 
the  composition;  and  that  when  we  do  feel  it,  we 
then  immediately  conceive  that  we  are  in  possession 
of  the  key  by  which  the  form  and  the  proportion  of 
every  member  is  to  be  estimated.  The  moment, 
either  in  the  observation  of  nature  or  of  the  arts  of 
imitation,  that  we  feel  the  countenance  to  -be  ex- 
pressive of  character,  we  instantly  expect  and  look 
for  a  unity  in  the  composition  of  every  member  of 
the  form.  The  most  insignificant  portions  of  the 
frame,  seem  then  to  arise  into  meaning  and  conse- 
quence ;  we  demand  that  all  of  these  should  contri- 
bute, by  the  nature  of  their  character,  to  the  general 
character  of  the  countenance;  and  if  any  of  them 
are  defective,  we  lament  either  over  the  accidents 
of  nature,  or  the  incapacity  of  the  artist.  Were  we 
to  state  to  any  person,  that  a  statue  had  all  the  pro- 
portions which  the  assiduity  of  technical  taste  had 
ascertained,  that  every  limb  was  fashioned  accord- 
ing to  the  most  approved  rule,  and  the  whole  com- 
posed of  the  most  perfect  individual  members,  the 
impression,  I  think,  we  should  leave  upon  him,  would 
be,  that  it  was  a  work  of  consummate  art,  and  that 
the  labor  of  the  artist  was  deserving  of  much  re- 
ward. Were  we,  on  the  other  hand,  to  state  to  him 
that  this  statue  had  some  great  or  interesting  cha- 
racter, that  the  countenance  expressed  some  heroic 
or  some  amiable  passion,  and  that  every  Hmb  and 
every  Hne  of  the  form  was  in  full  correspondence 
with  this  expression,  I  apprehend  we  should  give 
him  the  conviction,  that  the  statue  was  a  master- 
piece of  genius,  and  that  no  language  of  enthusiasm 
was  superior  to  its  deserts. 


EXTRACT    XXI.  191 

EXTRACT  XXL 
Autumnal  Reflections.         Washington  Irving. 

It  is  either  my  good  fortune  or  mishap  to  be  keen- 
ly susceptible  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere; 
and  I  can  feel  in  the  morning,  before  I  open  my. 
window,  whether  the  wind  is  easterly.  It  will  not, 
therefore,  I  presume,  be  considered  an  extravagant] 
instance  of  vain-glory,  when  I  assert,  that  there  are' 
few  men  who  can  discriminate  more  accurately  in 
the  different  varieties  of  damps,  fogs,  Scotch  mists, 
and  north-east  storms,  than  myself.  To  the  great 
discredit  of  my  philosophy,  I  confess,  I  seldom  fail 
to  anathematize  and  excommunicate  the  weather, 
when  it  sports  too  rudely  with  my  sensitive  system ; 
but  then  I  always  endeavor  to  atone  therefor,  by  eu- 
logizing it,  when  deserving  of  approbation.  And,  as 
most  of  my  readers,  (simple  folks!)  make  but  one 
distinction,  to  wit,  rain  and  sunshine, — living  in  most 
honest  ignorance  of  the  various  nice  shades  w^hich 
distinguish  one  fine  day  from  another,  —  I  take  the 
trouble,  from  time  to  time,  of  letting  them  into  some 
of  the  secrets  of  nature ;  —  so  will  they  be  the  better 
enabled  to  enjoy  her  beauties,  with  the  zest  of  con- 
noisseurs, and  derive,  at  least,  as  much  information 
from  my  pages,  as  from  the  weather-wise  lore  of  the 
almanac. 

Much  of  my  recreation,  has  consisted  in  making 
little  excursions  through  my  neighborhood,  which 
abounds  in  the  variety  of  wild,  romantic,  and  luxuri- 
ant landscape,  that  generally  characterises  the  scen- 
ery in  the  vicinity  of  our  rivers.  There  is  not  an 
eminence  within  a  circuit  of  many  miles  but  com- 
mands an  extensive  range  of  diversified  and  en- 
chanting prospect. 

Often  have  I  rambled  to  the  summit  of  some  fa- 


192  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

vorite  hill,  and,  tlience,  with  feelings  sweetly  tran- 
quil as  the  lucid  expanse  of  the  heavens  that  cano- 
pied me,  have  noted  the  slow  and  almost  impercepti- 
ble changes  that  mark  the  waning  year.  There  are 
many  features  peculiar  to  our  autumn,  and  which 
give  it  an  individual  character :  the  "  green  and  yel- 
low melancholy,"  that  first  steals  over  the  landscape, 
—  the  mild  and  steady  serenity  of  the  weather,  and 
the  transparent  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  speak,  not 
merely  to  the  senses  but  the  heart ;  —  it  is  the  sea- 
son of  liberal  emotions.  To  this  succeeds  fantastic 
gayety,  a  motley  dress,  which  the  woods  assume, 
where  green  and  yellow,  orange,  purple,  crimson, 
and  scarlet,  are  whimsically  blended  together.  —  A 
sickly  splendor  this  I  —  like  the  wild  and  broken- 
hearted gayety  that  sometimes  precedes  dissolution, 
or  that  childish  sportiveness  of  superannuated  age, 
proceeding,  not  from  a  vigorous  flow  of  animal  spir- 
its, but  from  the  decay  and  imbecility  of  the  mind. 

We  might,  perhaps,  be  deceived  by  this  gaudy 
garb  of  nature,  were  it  not  for  the  rustling  of  the 
falling  leaf,  which,  breaking  on  the  stillness  of  the 
scene,  seems  to  announce,  in  prophetic  wliispers,  the 
dreary  winter  that  is  approaching.  When  I  have 
sometimes  seen  a  thrifty  young  oak  changing  its  hue 
of  sturdy  vigor  for  a  bright,  but  transient  glow  of  red, 
it  has  recalled  to  my  mind  the  treacherous  bloom 
that  once  mantled  the  cheek  of  a  friend  who  is  now 
no  more ;  and  which,  while  it  seemed  to  promise  .a 
long  life  of  jocund  spirits,  was  the  sure  precursor  of 
premature  decay. 

A  little  while,  and  this  ostentatious  foliage  disap- 
pears:—  the  close  of  autumn  leaves  but  one  wide 
expanse  of  dusky  brown,  save  where  some  riviilet 
steals  along,  bordered  with  little  strips  of  green 
grass ;  —  the  woodland  echoes  no  more  to  the  carols 
of  the  feathered  tribes  that  sported  in  the  leafy  co- 
vert ;  and  its  sohtude  and  silence  is  uninterrupted, 


EXTRACT    XXI.  193 

except  by  the  plaintive  whistle  of  the  quail,  the 
barking  of  the  squirrel,  or  the  still  more  melancholy 
wintry  wind,  which  rushing  and  swelling  through 
the  hollows  of  the  mountains,  sighs  through  the  leaf- 
less branches  of  the  grove,  and  seems  to  mourn  the 
desolation  of  the  year. 

To  one  who,  like  myself,  is  fond  of  drawing  com- 
parisons between  the  different  divisions  of  life,  and 
those  of  the  seasons,  there  will  appear  a  striking  an- 
alogy which  connects  the  feehngs  of  age  with  the 
decline  of  the  year.  Often  as  I  contemplate  the 
mild,  uniform,  and  genial  lustre  with  which  the  sun 
cheers  and  invigorates  us  in  the  month  of  October, 
and  the  almost  imperceptible  haze  which,  without 
obscuring,  tempers  all  the  asperities  of  the  land- 
scape, and  gives  to  every  object  a  character  of  still- 
ness and  repose,  I  cannot  help  comparing  it  with 
that  portion  of  existence,  when  the  spring  of  youth- 
ful hope,  and  the  summer  of  the  passions  having 
gone  by,  reason  assumes  an  undisputed  sway,  and 
lights  us  on  with  bright,  but  undazzling  lustre,  adown 
the  hill  of  life.  There  is  a  full  and  mature  luxuri- 
ance in  the  fields,  that  fills  the  bosom  with  generous 
and  disinterested  content.  It  is  not  the  thoughtless 
extravagance  of  spring,  prodigal  only  in  blossoms, 
nor  the  languid  voluptuousness  of  summer,  feverish 
in  its  enjoyments,  and  teeming  only  with  immature 
abundance ;  —  it  is  that  certain  fruition  of  the  labors 
of  the  past,  —  that  prospect  of  comfortable  reahties 
which  those  will  be  sure  to  enjoy  who  have  improv- 
ed the  bounteous  smiles  of  heaven,  nor  wasted  away 
their  spring  and  summer  in  empty  trifling  or  criminal 
indulgence. 


17 


194  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

EXTRACT   XXII. 

Female  Character.  Washington  Irving. 

Modern  philosophers  may  determine  the  proper 
destination  of  the  sex ;  —  they  may  assign  to  them 
an  extensive  and  briUiant  orbit,  in  which  to  revolve, 
to  the  delight  of  the  million,  and  the  confusion  of 
man's  superior  intellect;  but,  on  this  subject,  we  dis- 
claim philosophy,  and  appeal  to  the  liigher  tribunal 
of  the  heart :  —  and  what  heart  that  has  not  lost  its 
better  feelings,  would  ever  seek  to  repose  its  happi- 
ness on  the  bosom  of  one,  whose  pleasures  all  lay 
without  the  threshold  of  home,  —  who  snatched  en- 
joyment only  in  the  whirlpool  of  dissipation,  and 
amid  the  thoughtless  and  evanescent  gayety  of  a 
ball-room  ?  The  fair  one  who  is  forever  in  the  ca- 
reer of  amusement,  may,  for  a  while,  dazzle,  aston- 
ish, and  entertain ;  but  we  are  content  with  coldly 
admiring,  and  fondly  turn  from  glitter  and  noise,  to 
seek  the  happy  fireside  of  social  life,  there  to  confide 
our  dearest  and  best  afiections. 

Yet  some  there  are,  who  mingle  freely  with  the 
world,  unsullied  by  its  contaminations; — whose  bril- 
liant minds,  like  the  stars  of  the  firmament,  are  des- 
tined to  shed  their  light  abroad,  and  gladden  every 
beholder  with  their  radiance:  —  to  withhold  them 
from  the  world  would  be  doing  it  injustice;  —  they 
are  inestimable  gems,  which  were  never  formed  to 
be  shut  up  in  caskets,  but  to  be  the  pride  and  orna- 
ment of  elegant  society. 

We  should  endeavor  always  to  discriminate  be- 
tween a  female  of  this  superior  order,  and  the 
thoughtless  votary  of  pleasure,  who,  destitute  of  in- 
tellectual resources,  is  servilely  dependent  on  others 
for  every  Httle  pittance  of  enjoyment,  — who  exhibits 
herself  incessantly  amid  the  noise,  the  giddy  frolic, 


EXTRACT    XXII.  195 

and  capricious  variety  of  fashionable  assemblages,  — 
dissipating  her  languid  affections  on  a  crowd,  —  lav- 
ishing her  ready  smiles  with  indiscriminate  prodigal- 
ity on  the  worthy,  or  the  undeserving,  —  and  listen- 
ing, with  equal  vacancy  of  mind,  to  the  conversation 
of  the  enlightened,  the  frivolity  of  the  coxcomb,  and 
the  flourish  of  the  fiddle-stick. 

There  is  a  certain  artificial  polish,  —  a^common- 
place  vivacity,  —  acquired  by  perpetually  mingling 
in  the  heau-monde ;  which,  in  the  commerce  of  the 
world,  supplies  the  place  of  natural  suavity  and  good 
humor,  but  is  purchased  at  the  expense  of  all  orig- 
inal and  sterling  traits  of  character.  By  a  kind  of 
fashionable  discipline,  the  eye  is  taught  to  brighten, 
the  lip  to  smile,  and  the  whole  countenance  to  radi- 
ate with  the  semblance  of  friendly  welcome,  —  while 
the  bosom  is  unwarmed  by  a  single  spark  of  genuine 
kindness  or  good  will.  This  elegant  simulation  may 
be  admired  by  the  connoisseur  of  character,  as  a  per- 
fection of  art ;  but  the  heart  is  not  to  be  deceived  by 
the  superficial  illusion :  it  turns  with  delight  to  the 
timid  retiring  fair  one,  whose  smile  is  the  smile  of 
nature ;  whose  blush  is  the  soft  sufiiision  of  dehcate 
sensibility ;  and  whose  affections,  unblighted  by  the 
chilling  effects  of  dissipation,  glow  with  all  the  ten- 
derness and  purity  of  artless  youth.  Hers  is  a  sin- 
gleness of  mind,  a  native  innocence  of  manners,  and 
a  sweet  timidity,  that  steal  insensibly  upon  the  heart, 
and  lead  it  a  willing  captive:  —  though  venturing 
occasionally  among  the  fairy  haunts  of  pleasure,  she 
shrinks  from  the  broad  glare  of  notoriety,  and  seems 
to  seek  refuge  among  her  friends,  even  from  the  ad- 
miration of  the  world. 


196  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES, 


EXTRACT  XXIII. 

A  Voyage  up  the  Hudson,  in  the  olden  time. 

"Washington  Irving. 

Wildness  and  savage  majesty  reigned  on  the  bor- 
ders of  this  mighty  river.  —  The  hand  of  cultivation 
had  not  yet  laid  low  the  dark  forest,  and  tamed  the 
features  of  the  landscape ;  nor  had  the  frequent  sail 
of  commerce  yet  broken  in  upon  the  profound  and 
awful  solitude  of  ages.  Here  and  there  might  be 
seen  a  rude  wigwam,  perched  among  the  cliffs  of  the 
mountains,  with  its  curling  column  of  smoke  mount- 
ing in  the  transparent  atmosphere ;  but  so  loftily  sit- 
uated, that  the  whoopings  of  the  savage  children, 
gambolling  on  the  margin  of  the  dizzy  heights,  fell 
almost  as  faintly  on  the  ear,  as  do  the  notes  of  the 
lark,  when  lost  in  the  azure  vault  of  heaven.  Now 
and  then  from  the  beetling  brow  of  some  rocky  pre- 
cipice, the  wild  deer  would  look  timidly  down  upon 
the  splendid  pageant  as  it  passed  below ;  and  then, 
tossing  his  branching  antlers  in  the  air,  would  bound 
away  into  the  thickest  of  the  forest. 

Now  did  they  skirt  the  basis  of  the  rocky  heights 
of  Jersey,  which  spring  up  like  everlasting  walls, 
reaching  from  the  waves  into  the  heavens ;  and  were 
fashioned,  if  tradition  may  be  believed,  in  times  long 
past,  by  the  mighty  spirit  Manetho,  to  protect  his  fa- 
vorite abodes  from  the  unhallowed  eyes  of  mortals. 
Now  did  they  career  it  gayly  across  the  vast  expanse 
of  Tappan  Bay,  whose  wide-extended  shores  present 
a  vast  variety  of  delectable  scenery,  —  here  the  bold 
promontory,  crowned  with  embowering  trees,  ad- 
vancing into  the  bay,  —  there  the  long  woodland 
slope,  sweeping  up  from  the  shore  in  rich  luxuriance, 
and  terminating  in  the  upland  precipice, — while,  at 
a  distance,  a  long  wavering  Una  of  rocky  heights 


EXTRACT    XXIII.  197 

threw  their  gigantic  shades  across  the  water.  Now 
would  they  pass  where  some  modest  Uttle  interval, 
opening  among  these  stupendous  scenes,  yet  re- 
treating, as  it  were  for  protection,  into  the  embraces 
of  the  neighboring  mountains,  displayed  a  rural  para- 
dise, fraught  with  sweet  and  pastoral  beauties ;  the 
velvet-tufted  lawn,  the  bushy  copse,  the  tinkling 
rivulet,  stealing  through  the  fresh  and  vivid  ver- 
dure, on  whose  banks  was  situated  some  little  In- 
dian village,  or,  peradventure,  the  rude  cabin  of  some 
solitary  hunter. 

The  different  periods  of  the  revolving  day  seemed 
each,  with  cunning  magic,  to  diffuse  a  different  charm 
over  the  scene.  Now  would  the  jovial  sun  break 
gloriously  from  the  east,  blazing  from  the  summits 
of  eastern  hills,  and  sparkling  the  landscape  with  a 
thousand  dewy  gems ;  while  along  the  borders  of 
the  river  were  seen  heavy  masses  of  mist,  which 
like  midnight  caitiffs,  disturbed  at  his  approach,  made 
a  sluggish  retreat,  rolling,  in  sullen  reluctance,  up 
the  mountains.  At  such  times,  all  was  brightness, 
and  life,  and  gayety ;  the  atmosphere  seemed  of  an 
indescribable  pureness  and  transparency ;  —  the  birds 
broke  forth  in  wanton  madrigals ;  and  the  freshening 
breezes  wafted  the  vessel  merrily  on  her  course. 
But  when  the  sun  sunk  amid  a  flood  of  glory  in  the 
west,  mantling  the  heavens  and  the  earth  with  a 
thousand  gorgeous  dyes ;  then  all  was  calm,  and  si- 
lent, and  magnificent.  The  late  swelling  sail  hung 
lifelessly  against  the  mast ;  —  the  simple  seaman  with 
folded  arms  leaned  against  the  shrouds,  lost  in  that 
involuntary  musing,  which  the  sober  grandeur  of  na- 
ture commands,  in  the  rudest  of  her  children.  The 
vast  bosom  of  the  Hudson  was  like  an  unruffled 
mirror,  reflecting  the  golden  splendor  of  the  heavens, 
excepting  that,  now  and  then,  a  bark  canoe  would 
steal  across  its  surface,  filled  with  painted  savages, 
whose  gay  feathers  glared  brightly  as  perchance  a 
17# 


198  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

lingering  ray  of  the  setting  sun  gleamed  upon  them 
from  the  western  mountains. 

But  when  the  hour  of  twihght  spread  its  magic 
mists  around,  then  did  the  face  of  nature  assume  a 
thousand  fugitive  charms,  which  to  the  worthy  heart 
that  seeks  enjoyment  in  the  glorious  works  of  its 
Maker,  are  inexpressibly  captivating.  The  mellow 
dubious  Hght  that  prevailed  just  served  to  tinge  with 
illusive  colors,  the  softened  features  of  the  scenery. 
The  deceived  but  delighted  eye  sought  vainly  to  dis- 
cern, in  the  broad  masses  of  shade,  the  separating 
line  between  the  land  and  water,  or  to  distinguish 
the  fading  objects  that  seemed  sinking  into  chaos. 
Now  did  the  busy  fancy  supply  the  feebleness  of 
vision,  producing,  with  industrious  craft,  a  fairy  crea- 
tion of  her  own.  Under  her  plastic  wand,  the  barren 
rocks  frowned  upon  the  watery  waste,  in  the  sem- 
blance of  lofty  towers  and  high  embattled  castles ;  — 
trees  assumed  the  direful  forms  of  mighty  giants ; 
and  the  inaccessible  summits  of  the  mountains  seem- 
ed peopled  with  a  thousand  shadowy  beings. 

Now  broke  forth  from  the  shores  the  notes  of  an 
innumerable  variety  of  insects,  who  filled  the  air  with 
a  strange  but  not  inharmonious  concert ;  while  ever 
and  anon  was  heard  the  melancholy  plaint  of  the 
whip-poor-will,  who,  perched  on  some  lone  tree, 
wearied  the  ear  of  night  with  his  incessant  mean- 
ings. The  mind,  soothed  into  a  hallowed  melan- 
choly by  the  solemn  mystery  of  the  scene,  listened, 
with  pensive  stillness,  to  catch  and  distinguish  each 
sound  that  vaguely  echoed  from  the  shore,  —  now 
and  then  startled  perchance  by  the  whoop  of  some 
stragghng  savage,  or  the  dreary  howl  of  some  caitiff 
wolf,  stealing  forth  upon  his  nightly  prowlings. 


• 


EXTRACT    XXIV.  199         f 

K  ■ 

EXTRACT  X^IV. 

Poetry.     William  Ellery  Channing. 

Poetry  seems,  to  us,  the  divinest  of  all  arts ;  for  it 
is  the  breathing  or  expression  of  that  principle  or 
sentiment  which  is  deepest  and  sublimest  in  human 
nature ;  we  mean,  of  that  thirst  or  aspiration,  to  which 
no  mind  is  wholly  a  stranger,  for  something  purer 
and  lovelier,  something  more  powerful,  lofty,  and 
thrilling,  than  ordinary  and  real  life  affords.  No"  doc- 
trine is  more  common  among  Christians  than  that  of 
man's  immortahty ;  but  it  is  not  so  generally  under- 
stood, that  the  germs  or  principles  of  his  whole  fu- 
ture being  are  now  wrapped  up  in  liis  soul,  as  the 
rudiments  of  the  future  plant  in  the  seed.  As  a 
necessary  result  of  this  constitution,  the  soul,  posses- 
sed and  moved  by  these  mighty  though  infant  ener- 
gies, is  perpetually  stretching  beyond  what  is  pre- 
sent and  visible,  struggling  against  the  bounds  of  its 
earthly  prison-house,  and  seeking  relief  and  joy  in 
imaginings  of  unseen  and  ideal  being.  This  view 
of  our  nature,  which  has  never  been  fully  developed, 
and  which  goes  farther  towards  explaining  the  con- 
tradictions of  human  life  than  all  others,  carries  us 
to  the  very  foundation  and  sources  of  poetry.  He 
who  can  not  interpret  by  his  own  consciousness  what 
we  now  have  said,  wants  the  true  key  to  works  of 
genius.  He  has  not  penetrated  those  sacred  recess- 
es of  the  soul,  where  poetry  is  born  and  nourished, 
and  inhales  immortal  vigor,  and  wings  herself  for 
her  heaven-ward  flight. 

In  an  intellectual  nature,  framed  for  progress  and 
for  higher  modes  of  being,  there  must  be  creative 
energies,  power  of  original  and  ever  growing  thought; 
and  poetry  is  the  form  in  which  these  energies  are 
chiefly  manifested.     It  is  the  glorious  prerogative  of 


fj;f{^0|  f;-r    -  .  >SpB^,I^CXS    ^R   EXERCISES. 

^'ili^^i'fTTliiakesJRl  things  new"  for  the  grati- 
linct.  It  indeed  finds  its  ele- 
niefi'fes:^fe;^^ai5**^'^^^^lly  sees  and  experiences,  in 
the  worlds  of  matter  and  mind ;  but  it  combines  and 
blends  these  into  new  forms  and  according  to  new 
affinities ;  breaks  down,  if  we  may  so  say,  the  dis- 
tinctions and  bounds  of  nature ;  imparts  to  material 
objects  life,  and  sentiment,  and  emotion,  and  invests 
the  mind  with  the  powers  and  splendors  of  the  out- 
ward creation  ;  describes  the  surrounding  universe 
in  the  colors  which  the  passions  throw  over  it,  and 
depicts  the  mind  in  those  modes  of  repose  or  agita- 
tion, of  tenderness  or  sublime  emotion,  which  mani- 
fest its  thirst  for  a  more  powerful  and  joyful  exist- 
ence. To  a  man  of  a  literal  and  prosaic  character, 
the  mind  may  seem  lawless  in  these  workings ;  but 
it  observes  higher  laws  than  it  transgresses,  the  laws 
of  the  immortal  intellect ;  it  is  trying  and  developing 
its  best  faculties;  and  in  the  objects  wliich  it  de- 
scribes, or  in  the  emotions  which  it  awakens,  antici- 
pates those  states  of  progressive  power,  splendor, 
beauty,  and  happiness,  for  which  it  was  created. 

We  accordingly  believe  that  poetry,  far  from  in- 
juring society,  is  one  of  the  great  instruments  of  its 
refinement  and  exaltation.  It  lifts  the  mind  above 
ordinary  life,  gives  it  a  respite  from  depressing  cares, 
and  awakens  the  consciousness  of  its  affinity  with 
what  is  pure  and  noble.  In  its  legitimate  and  high- 
est efforts,  it  has  the  same  tendency  and  aim  with 
Christianity ;  that  is,  to  spiritualise  our  nature.  True, 
poetry  has  been  made  the  instrument  of  vice,  the 
pander  of  bad  passions ;  but  when  genius  thus  stoops, 
it  dims  its  fii'es,  and  parts  with  much  of  its  power ; 
and  even  when  poetry  is  enslaved  to  licentiousness 
or  misanthropy,  she  cannot  wholly  forget  her  true 
vocation :  Strains  of  pure  feeling,  touches  of  tender- 
ness, images  of  innocent  happiness,  sympathies  with 
what  is  good  in  our  nature,  bursts  of  scorn  and  in- 


dignation  at  the  hollowness\|f  yie^v-orld,  passa^s 
true  to  our  mortal  nature,  ofillfc  e'scape  in.  an  im- 
moral work,  and  show  us  how  hard  it  is  for  a  gifted 
spirit  to  divorce  itself  wholly  from  what  is  good. 

Poetry  has  a  natural  alliance  with  our  best  affec- 
tions. It  dehghts  in  the  beauty  and  subhmity  of 
outward  nature  and  of  the  soul.  It  indeed  portrays 
with  terrible  energy,  the  excesses  of  the  passions ; 
but  they  are  passions  wliich  show  a  mighty  nature, 
wliich  are  full  of  power,  which  command  awe,  and 
excite  a  deep  though  shuddering  sympathy.  Its 
great  tendency  and  purpose  is,  to  carry  the  mind  be- 
yond and  above  the  beaten,  dusty,  weary  walks  of 
ordinary  life ;  to  lift  it  into  a  purer  element,  and  to 
breathe  into  it  a  more  profound  and  generous  emo- 
tion. It  reveals  to  us  the  loveliness  of  nature,  brings 
back  the  freslmess  of  youthful  feeling,  revives  the 
reUsh  of  simple  pleasures,  keeps  unquenched  the 
enthusiasm  which  warmed  the  spring  time  of  our 
being,  refines  youthful  love,  strengthens  our  interest 
in  human  nature  by  vivid  delineations  of  jts  tender- 
est  and  loftiest  feelings,  spreads  our  sympathies  over 
all  classes  of  society,  knits  us  by  new  ties  with  uni- 
versal being,  and,  through  the  brightness  of  its  pro- 
phetic visions,  helps  faith  to  lay  hold  on  the  future 
life. 

We  are  aware,  that  it  is  objected  to  poetry,  that  it 
gives  wrong  views  and  excites  false  expectations  of 
life,  peoples  the  mind  with  shadows  and  illusions, 
and  builds  up  imagination  on  the  ruins  of  wisdom. 
That  there  is  a  wisdom,  against  which  poetry  wars, 
the  wisdom  of  the  senses,  'which  makes  physical 
comfort  and  gratification  the  supreme  good,  and 
wealth  the  chief  interest  of  life,  we  do  not  deny ; 
nor  do  we  deem  it  the  least  service  which  poetry 
renders  to  mankind,  that  it  redeems  them  from  the 
thraldom  of  this  earth-bom  prudence.  But,  passing 
over  this  topic,  we  would  observe,  that  the  complaint 


202  SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISES. 

i 

against  poetry  as  aboufiding  in  illusion  and  decep- 
tion, is,  in  the  mainf  groundless.  In  many  poems 
there  is  more  of  truth,  than  in  many  histories  and 
philosophic  theories.  The  fictions  of  genius  are 
often  the  vehicles  of  the  sublimest  verities  ;  and  its 
flashes  often  open  new  regions  of  thought,  and  throw 
new  light  on  the  mysteries  of  our  being.  In  poetry, 
the  letter  is  falsehood,  but  the  spirit  is  often  pro- 
foundest  wisdom.  And  if  truth  thus  dwells  in  the 
boldest  fictions  of  the  poet,  much  more  may  it  be 
expected  in  his  delineations  of  life ;  for  the  present 
life,  which  is  the  first  stage  of  the  immortal  mind, 
abounds  in  the  materials  of  poetry;  and  it  is  the 
high  ofiice  of  the  bard  to  detect  this  divine  element 
among  the  grosser  labors  and  pleasures  of  our  earthly 
being.  The  present  life  is  not  wholly  prosaic,  tame, 
and  finite.  To  the  gifted  eye,  it  abounds  in  the 
poetic.  The  afl^ections  which  spread  beyond  our- 
selves and  stretch  far  into  futurity ;  the  workings  of 
mighty  passions,  which  seem  to  arm  the  soul  with 
an  almost  superhuman  energy  ;  the  innocent  and  ir- 
repressible joy  of  infancy ;  the  bloom,  and  buoyancy 
and  dazzling  hopes  of  youth ;  the  throbbings  of  the 
heart,  when  it  first  wakes  to  love,  and  dreams  of  a 
happiness  too  vast  for  earth;  woman,  with  her 
beauty,  and  grace,  and  gentleness,  and  fulness  of 
feeling,  and  depth  of  affection,  and  her  blushes  of 
purity,  and  the  tones  and  looks  which  only  a  mother's 
heart  can  inspire ;  —  these  are  aU  poetical.  It  is  not 
true  that  the  poet  paints  a  life  which  does  not  exist. 
He  only  extracts  and  concentrates,  as  it  were,  life's 
ethereal  essence,  arrests  and  condenses  its  volatile 
fragrance,  brings  together  its  scattered  beauties,  and 
prolongs  its  more  refined  but  evanescent  joys ;  and 
in  tliis  he  does  well ;  for  it  is  good  to  feel  that  life  is 
not  wholly  usurped  by  cares  for  subsistence,  and 
physical  gratifications,  but  admits,  in  measures  which 
may  be  indefinitely  enlarged,  sentiments  and  delights 
worthy  of  a  higher  being. 


EXTRACT    XXV.  203 


EXTRACT   XXV. 

Permanence  of  Literary  Monuments. 

James  Montgomery. 

An  eloquent  but  extravagant  writer  lias  hazarded 
the  assertion,  that  "  words  are  the  only  things  that 
last  forever."  Nor  is  this  merely  a  splendid  saying, 
or  a  startling  paradox,  that  may  be  qualified  by  ex- 
planation into  common-place ;  but,  with  respect  to 
man  and  his  works  on  earth,  it  is  literally  true. 
Temples  and  palaces,  amphitheatres  and  catacombs, 
monuments  of  power,  and  magnificence,  and  skill,  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  and  preserve  even  the  ashes 
of  those  who  lived  in  past  ages,  must,  in  the  revolu- 
tions of  earthly  events,  not  only  perish,  themselves, 
by  violence  or  decay,  but  the  very  dust  in  w^hich  they 
perished  be  so  scattered,  as  to  leave  no  trace  of  their 
material  existence  behind.  There  is  no  security, 
beyond  the  passing  moment,  for  the  most  permanent 
or  the  most  precious  of  these ;  they  are  as  much  in 
jeopardy  as  ever,  after  having  escaped  the  changes 
and  chances  of  thousands  of  years.  An  earthquake 
may  suddenly  ingulf  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and 
leave  the  sand  of  the  desert  as  blank  as  the  tide 
would  have  left  it  on  the  sea-shore.  A  hammer,  in 
the  hand  of  an  idiot,  may  break  to  pieces  the  Apollo 
Belvidere  or  the  Venus  de  Medici,  which  are  scarce- 
ly less  worshipped,  as  miracles  of  art,  in  our  day, 
than  they  were  by  idolaters  of  old,  as  representatives 
of  deities. 

Looking  abroad  over  the  whole  world,  after  the 
lapse  of  nearly  six  thousand  years,  what  have  we  of 
the  past  but  the  words  in  which  its  history  is  record- 
ed? What  beside  a  few  mouldering  and  brittle 
ruins,  which  time  is  imperceptibly  touching  into 
dust  ?     What,  beside  these,  remains  of  the  glory,  the 


204  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

grandeur,  the  intelligence,  the  supremacy  of  the  Gre- 
cian republics,  or  the  empire  of  Home?  Nothing 
but  the  \vords  of  poets,  liistorians,  philosophers,  and 
orators,  w^ho,  being  dead,  yet  speak,  and,  in  their  im- 
mortal works,  still  maintain  their  ascendency  over 
inferior  minds,  through  all  posterity.  And  these  in- 
tellectual sovereigns  not  only  "  rule  our  spirits  from 
their  urns,"  by  the  power  of  their  thoughts,  but  their 
very  voices  are  heard  by  our  living  ears,  in  the  ac- 
cents of  their  mother  tongues.  The  beauty,  the  elo- 
quence, and  art  of  these  collocations  of  sounds  and 
syllables,  the  learned  alone  can  appreciate,  and  that 
only  (in  some  cases)  after  long,  intense,  and  labori- 
ous investigation.  But,  as  thought  can  be  made  to 
transmigrate  from  one  body  of  words  into  another, 
even  through  all  the  languages  of  the  earth,  without 
losing  what  may  be  called  its  personal  identity,  the 
great  minds  of  antiquity  continue  to  hold  their  as- 
cendency over  the  opinions,  and  manners,  characters, 
institutions,  and  events  of  all  ages  and  nations, 
through  which  their  posthumous  compositions  have 
found  way,  and  been  made  the  earliest  subjects  of 
study,  the  highest  standards  of  morals,  and  the  most 
perfect  examples  of  taste,  to  the  master  minds  in 
every  state  of  civilized  society.  In  this  respect,  the 
words  of  inspired  prophets  and  apostles  among  the 
Jews,  and  those  of  gifted  writers  among  the  ancient 
Gentiles,  may  truly  be  said  to  "last  forever." 


EXTRACT   XXVI. 

Circumstances  under  which   Milton  wrote   Paradise 
Lost,  and  the  Sonnets.  Macaulay. 

Milton  had  survived  his  health  and  his  sight,  the 
comforts  of  his  home  and  the  prosperity  of  his  party. 


EXTRACT    XXVI.  205 

Of  the  great  men  by  whom  he  had  been  distinguish- 
ed at  his  entrance  into  hfe,  some  had  been  taken 
away  from  the  evil  to  come ;  some  had  carried  into 
foreign  chmates  their  unconquerable  hatred  of  op- 
pression ;  some  were  pining  in  dungeons ;  and  some 
had  poured  forth  their  blood  on  scaffolds.  That  hate- 
ful proscription,  facetiously  termed  the  Act  of  In- 
demnity and  Oblivion,  had  set  a  mark  on  the  poor, 
blind,  deserted  poet,  and  held  him  up  by  name  to 
the  hatred  of  a  profligate  court  and  an  inconstant 
people.  Venal  and  licentious  scribblers,  with  just 
sufficient  talent  to  clothe  the  thoughts  of  a  pander  in 
the  style  of  a  bellman,  were  now  the  favorite  writers 
of  the  Sovereign  and  the  pubhc.  It  was  a  loath- 
some herd,  which  could  be  compared  to  nothing  so 
fitly  as  to  the  rabble  of  Comus.  Amidst  these  his 
Muse  was  placed,  like  the  chaste  lady  of  the  Masque, 
lofty,  spotless,  and  serene ;  —  to  be  chattered  at,  and 
pointed  at,  and  grinned  at,  by  the  whole  rabble  of 
satyrs  and  goblins. 

]jf  ever  despondency  and  asperity,  could  be  excused 
in  any  man,  it  might  have  been  excused  in  Milton. 
But  the  strength  of  his  mind  overcame  every  calam- 
ity. Neither  blindness,  nor  gout,  nor  age,  nor  pen- 
ury, nor  domestic  afflictions,  nor  political  disappoint- 
ments, nor  abuse,  nor  proscription,  nor  neglect,  had 
power  to  disturb  his  sedate  and  majestic  patience. 
His  spirits  do  not  seem  to  have  been  high,  but  they 
were  pecuharly  equable.  His  temper  was  serious, 
perhaps  stern ;  but  it  was  a  temper  which  no  suffer- 
ings could  render  sullen  or  fretful.  Such  as  it  was, 
when,  on  the  eve  of  great  events,  he  returned  from 
liis  travels,  in  the  prime  of  health  and  manly  beauty, 
loaded  with  literary  distinctions,  and  glowing  with 
patriotic  hopes,  —  such  it  continued  to  be,  when, 
after  having  experienced  every  calamity  which  is 
incident  to  our  nature,  old,  poor,  sightless,  and  dis- 
graced, he  retired  to  his  hovel  to  die. 
18 


206  SUBJECTS    FOR    EXERCISES. 

Hence  it  was,  that,  though,  he  wrote  the  Paradise 
Lost  at  a  time  of  hfe  when  images  of  beauty  and 
tenderness  are  in  general  beginning  to  fade,  even 
from  those  minds  in  which  they  have  not  been  ef- 
faced by  anxiety  and  disappointment,  he  adorned  it 
with  all  that  is  most  lovely.  Neither  Theocritus  nor 
Ariosto  had  a  finer  or  a  more  healthful  sense  of  the 
pleasantness  of  external  objects,  or  loved  better  to 
luxuriate  amidst  sunbeams  and  flowers,  the  songs 
of  nightingales,  the  juice  of  summer  fruits,  and  the 
coolness  of  shady  fountains.  His  poetry  reminds  us 
of  the  miracles  of  Alpine  scenery.  Nooks  and  dells, 
beautiful  as  fairy  land,  are  embosomed  in  its  most 
rugged  and  gigantic  elevations.  The  roses  and 
myrtles  bloom  unchilled  on  the  verge  of  the  ava- 
lanche. 

Traces,  indeed,  of  the  peculiar  character  of  Milton 
may  be  found  in  all  his  works ;  but  it  is  most  strong- 
ly displayed  in  the  Sonnets.  Those  remarkable 
poems  have  been  undervalued  by  critics  who  have 
not  understood  their  nature.  They  have  no  epi- 
grammatic point.  They  are  simple  but  majestic  re- 
cords of  the  feelings  of  the  poet ;  as  little  tricked  out 
for  the  public  eye  as  his  diary  would  have  been.  A 
victory,  an  unexpected  attack  upon  the  city,  a  mo- 
mentary fit  of  depression  or  exultation,  a  jest  thrown 
out  against  one  of  his  books,  a  dream,  which,  for  a 
short  time  restored  to  him  that  beautiful  face  over 
which  the  grave  had  closed  forever,  led  him  to  mus- 
ings which,  without  eflbrt,  shaped  themselves  into 
verse. 

The  Sonnets  are  more  or  less  striking,  according 
as  the  occasions  which  gave  birth  to  them  are  more 
or  less  interesting.  But  they  are,  almost  without 
exception,  dignified  by  a  sobriety  and  greatness  of 
mind  to  which  we  know  not  where  to  look  for  a 
parallel.  It  would  indeed  be  scarcely  safe  to  draw 
any  decided  inferences   as  to  the  character  of  a 


EXTRACT    XXIV.  207 

writer,  from  passages  directly  egotistical.  But  the 
qualities  which  we  have  ascribed  to  Milton,  though 
perhaps  most  strongly  marked  in  those  parts  of  liis 
works  which  treat  of  his  personal  feehngs,  are  dis- 
tinguishable in  every  page,  and  impart  to  all  his 
writings,  prose  and  poetry,  Enghsh,  Latin,  and  Ita- 
Han,  a  strong  family  hkeness. 

His  public  conduct  was  such  as  was  to  be  expect- 
ed from  a  man  of  a  spirit  so  high,  and  an  intellect  so 
powerful.  He  hved  at  one  of  the  most  memorable 
eras  in  the  history  of  mankind ;  at  a  very  crisis  of 
the  great  conflict  between  Oromasdes  and  Arimanes 
— hberty  and  despotism,  reason  and  prejudice.  That 
great  battle  was  fought  for  no  single  generation,  for 
no  single  land.  The  destinies  of  the  human  race 
were  staked  on  the  same  cast  with  the  freedom  of 
the  English  people.  Then  were  first  proclaimed 
those  mighty  principles  which  have  since  worked 
their  way  into  the  depths  of  the  American  forests, 
which  have  roused  Greece  from  the  slavery  and  de- 
gradation of  two  thousand  years,  and  which,  from 
one  end  of  Europe  to  the  other,  have  kindled  an  un- 
quenchable fire  in  the  hearts  of  the  oppressed,  and 
loosed  the  knees  of  the  oppressors  with  a  strange 
and  unwonted  fear  I 


APPENDIX. 


ORAL    LESSONS.* 

Introductory  Explanations^  designed  for  Pupils  sufficiently  advanced 
for  the  study  of  Grammar. 

Lesson  I.  —  Language. 

{Question,  by  the  Teacher.]  How  many  of  this  class  have  seen 
a  menagerie  ?  [Tlie  Pupils  who  have,  raise  the  hand.]  Question. 
What  is  a  menagerie  1  Answer.  A  collection  of  animals.  —  Q. 
Who  have  seen  an  ourang  outang  1  What  doest  it  resemble  1 
[Referring  to  a  picture,  if  necessary.]  A.  A  man  or  a  boy.  —  Q. 
Was  the  one  you  saw  quite  like  a  man  1  A.  No :  his  feet  were 
like  hands.  —  Q.    What  things  did  he  do,  that  made  him  resem- 


*  At  the  request  of  teachers  who  have  expressed  a  wish  to  in- 
troduce the  study  of  words,  as  an  exercise  in  practical  grammar, 
for  their  younger  classes,  examples  of  introductory  oral  instruc- 
tion are  inserted  in  the  appendix.  The  first  series  of  these  oral 
lessons,  is  intended  for  pupils  of  the  grade  mentioned  above,  and 
the  second  for  those  at  an  earlier  age,  but  capable  of  being  intel- 
ligently employed  on  elementary  exercises  on  words.  These  ex- 
amples are,  of  course,  nothing  more  than  suggestive  outlines,  which 
teachers  may  modify  according  to  the  wants  of  their  pupils.  But 
introductory  oral  instruction,  in  some  form,  is  indispensable,  to 
prevent  the  performance  of  exercises  from  becoming  mere  parts 
of  a  mechanical  routine,  and  to  ensure  their  being  executed  with 
an  intelligent  interest.  (209) 

18* 


210  APPENDIX. 

ble  a  man,  more  than  any  other  animal  does  ?  A.  He  stood  up, 
and  walked  on  two  feet.  —  Q.  What  does  a  man  do  that  the 
ourang  outang  can  not  do  ?  A.  He  speaks.  —  Q.  What  other 
words  do  we  sometimes  use,  when  we  mean  speaJcing  ?  A.  Speech, 
language.  —  Q.  What  is  the  use  of  language  ?  A.  To  tell  what 
we  think.  —  What  other  word  do  we  sometimes  use,  when  we 
mean  thinking  ?  A.  Thought.  —  Q.  May  we  not  say,  then,  that 
language  expresses  thought  ? 

Lesson  II.  —  Thoughts,  —  Ideas. 

Q.  What  does  language  express  ?  A.  Thought.  —  Q.  What 
is  a  thought  1  A.  Something  in  our  mind. —  Q.  Is  it  one  thing, 
or  more  than  one  thing  1  A.  Sometimes  one,  sometimes  more. 
Q.  When  I  am  lying  awake,  in  a  cold  winter  night,  and  hear 
something  soft  falling,  all  the  while,  on  the  window-panes,  and 
I  think  it  is  not  hail,  because  it  does  not  make  a  rattling  sound, 
and  I  think  it  is  not  rain  because  it  does  not  sound  like  that, 
what  do  I  think  ?  A.  You  think  it  is  snow.  —  Q.  I  might 
say,  then,  to  any  one  who  happened  to  be  near,  "  I  think  snow  is 
falling";  or,  if  I  felt  sure  of  it,  I  might  say,  "  Snow  is  falling." 
What  is  in  my  mind  then,  —  what  is  my  thought?  A.  You 
tWlnk  that  snow  is  falling.  —  Q.  How  many  things  are  in  my 
mind  then  ?  A.  Two,  —  snow  and  falling. —  Q.  Are  there  not 
more?  Think  again,  —  "snow  falling,"  "falling  snow."  This 
is  not  all  that  I  said,  when  I  told  somebody,  "  Snow  is  falling." 
What  is  the  use  of  "  is,"  here  ?    A.    It  tells  that  snow  is  falling. 

—  Q,  Yes  ;  if  I  only  say,  "  Snow  falling,"  or  "  falling  snow,"  I 
do  not  tell  anything.  When  I  think,  then,  that  snow  is  falling, 
are  there  not  three  things  in  my  mind,  snow  and  falling,  and  that  I 
think  it  is  falling?  To  make  the  whole  thought,  then,  how  many 
things  must  we  have  in  the  mind?  A.  Three. —  Q.  If  I  say, 
"  Rain  is  falling,"  —  how  many  ?  —  "  Wind  is  blowing  ?  "  — 
"  Morning  is  dawning  ?  "  —  "  Clouds  arc  passing  ?  "  —  A.    Three. 

—  Q.  A  whole  thought,  then,  is  made  up  of  how  many  parts  ? 
A.  Three.  —  Q.  Do  you  know  a  name  for  these  parts  ?  A. 
No.  —  Q.    When  there  is  but  one  thing,  or  one  part  of  a  whole 


ORAL    LESSONS.  211 

thought,  in  the  mind,  we  call  it  an  idea.  So,  when  I  think  that 
snow  is  falling,  I  have  an  idea  of  snow^  an  idea  oi  falling^  and  an 
idea  that  it  is  falling ;  and  these  three  ideas  make  the  whole 
thought.  How  many  ideas  are  there  in  each  of  these  thoughts, 
Rain  is  falling,  —  Wind  is  blowing,  —  Morning  is  breaking, — 
Clouds  are  passing  ?  A.  Three.  —  Q.  Can  you  mention  them  1 
A.  In  the  thought.  Rain  is  falling,  etc.  [as  above.]  —  Q.  Do 
you  observe  that,  in  every  one  of  these  thoughts,  there  is  some- 
thing that  we  are  thinking  of,  —  something  that  we  think  about 
what  we  are  thinking  of,  and  something  that  tells  that  we  do  think 
thus  about  it  ?  In  the  thought.  Snow  is  falling,  what  are  we  think- 
ing off  A.  Snow.  —  Q.  "What  do  we  think  about  it.  A.  That 
it  is  falling.  —  Q,  What  shows  that  we  do  think  thus  about  it  1 
A.    We  say  it  is  falling. 

Lesson  III.  —  Propositions,  —  their  parts. 

Q.  What  did  you  say  is  the  use  of  language  ?  A.  To  ex- 
press our  thoughts.  —  Q.  If  we  wish  to  understand  and  study 
language,  then,  what  must  we  do  ?  A.  Understand  our  thoughts. 
—  Q.  How  may  we  learn  to  understand  our  thoughts  ?  How 
do  we  learn  to  know  flowers  ?  A.  By  examining  them.  —  Q. 
Can  we  examine  our  thoughts  1:  A.  We  cannot  see  them ;  but 
we  can  think  about  them.  —  Q.  Do  you  wish  to  know  what  we 
call  a  thought,  when  we  are  examining  it  7  We  call  it  a  ''  pro- 
position.''' Can  you  tell  me  what  the  word  proposition  means  ?  It 
means  placed  before,  —  something  placed  before  the  mind.  What 
name  then  may  I  give  to  this  thought.  Snow  is  falling  'i  A.  A 
proposition.  —  Q.  To  this  1  Rain  is  falling.  To  these  ?  Trees 
are  growing.  Flowers  are  blooming.  Birds  are  singing.  Boys 
are  playing.  Summer  is  warm.  Winter  is  cold.  James  is  read- 
ing. John  is  listening.  —  Q.  Can  you  give  other  examples  of 
propositions  1     Can  you  find  any  in  your  reading-book  ? 

Q.  When  we  wish  to  speak  about  the  different  parts  of  our 
thoughts,  it  would  be  convenient,  —  would  it  not  1  —  to  have 
names  for  all  of  them  1  Thus,  instead  of  saying  about  one  of  the 
ideas  in  a  thought,  that  it  is  what  we  are  thinking  of,  would  it 


212  APPENDIX. 

not  be  more  convenient  to  name  it  by  one  word  ?  "Would  you 
like  then  to  know  the  name  we  give  ^to  the  idea  which  we  are 
thinking  of'?  We  call  it  the  "  subject,^'  because  it  is  the  subject  of 
our  thought.  What  name  do  we  give  to  what  we  are  thinking 
of?  A.  The  subject.  Q.  Can  you  tell  me  the  subject  in  these 
propositions,  Snow  is  falling,  Rain  is  falling,  etc.,  [with  addition- 
al examples.]  A.  Snow,  rain,  etc.  —  Q.  Would  you  like  to 
know  the  name  which  we  give  to  the  idea  that  we  have  about  the 
subject  of  our  thought?  We  call  it  the  predicate,  because  it  pre- 
dicates, or  tells,  what  we  think  about  the  subject.  Can  you  men- 
tion now  the  predicate  in  each  of  these  propositions,  Snow  is 
falling,  [etc.]  ?  A.  "  Falling,"  "  blowing,"  [etc.]  —  Q.  Can  you 
mention  the  predicate  in  these  propositions  ?  [additional  exam- 
ples.] A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Would  you  like  to  know  the 
name  which  we  give  to  the  fact  that  we  do  form  of  the  subject 
the  idea  in  the  predicate  ?  Because  it  connects  the  predicate 
with  the  subject,  we  call  it  the  "  copula,''^  or  connective.  Can  you 
mention  the  copula  in  each  of  these  propositions,  Snow  is  fall- 
ing, etc.  ?  A.  "  7s,"  —  in  all  of  them.  —  Q.  In  these  proposi- 
tions ?   [additional  examples.]    A.   [accordingly.] 

Lesson  IV.  —  Sentences. 

Q.  If  we  express  a  thought  or  proposition  in  words,  thus, 
[writing,  on  the  blackboard,  the  words,  "  Rain  is  falling,"]  we 
may  call  it  by  yet  another  name.  What  is  that  name  1  A.  A 
sentence.  —  Q.  The  word  sentence  means  thought,  and  hence  is 
used  as  the  grammatical  name  for  a  thought,  or  proposition,  ex- 
pressed in  words.  What  is  the  grammatical  name  for  a  proposi- 
tion 1  A.  A  sentence.  —  Q.  How  many  ideas  are  necessary  to 
make  a  complete  thought.  A.  Three.  —  Q.  What  are  their  lo- 
gical names  ?  A.  Subject,  predicate,  copula.  —  Q.  Can  you 
give  an  example  ?  A.  "  Rain  is  falling."  —  Q.  Can  you  tell 
which  of  these  words  [pointing  to  the  sentence  written  on  the 
board,]  represents  the  subject,  which  the  predicate,  and  which  the 
copula  ?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  [After  writing,  on  the  board, 
the  sentence,  "  Rain  falls,"]  What  is  the  subject  of  this  proposi- 


ORAL    LESSONS.  213 

tion  ?  A.  Eain.  —  Q.  What  is  the  predicate  ?  A.  Tails.  — 
Q.  Where  is  the  copula  1  —  A.  There  is  none.  —  Q.  Is  there 
nothing  to  take  its  place  1  Is  there  any  difference  between  the 
propositions,  Rain  is  falling,  and  Rain  falls  ?  May  I  not  say 
either,  speaking  of  the  weather,  when  it  rains  1  But  if  I  should 
say  "  Rain  fall,"  or  write  these  words  thus,  [writing  the  words, 
"  Bain  fall"]  on  the  blackboard,  would  they  make  sense  1  —  would 
they  make  a  thought  1  —  a  proposition  ?  —  a  sentence  ?  Should 
I  tell  anything  then  ?  Now,  when  I  say  or  write,  "  Rain  falls,"  do 
not  the  words  make  sense  —  make  a  proposition  1  —  Do  not  they 
tell  something  1  —  make  a  sentence  1  Do  you  observe,  then,  that 
when  we  add  s  to  "fall,'^  it  makes  the  sense  the  same  with  is  fall- 
ing ?  What  part  of  a  proposition,  then,  does  s  stand  for  ?  A. 
The  copula.  —  Q.  Can  you  show  this  by  the  other  examples 
which  we  have  had "?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Can  you  give 
other  examples  ?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Instead  of  three  parts, 
therefore,  what  smaller  number  of  parts  may  a  proposition  have  1 
A.  Two.  —  What  are  these  1  A.  Subject  and  predicate.  —  Q. 
Can  you  give  examples  of  such  propositions  1    A.   [accordingly.] 

Q.  What  did  you  say  is  the  grammatical  name  of  a  proposi- 
tion 1  A.  A  sentence.  —  Q.  Shall  I  tell  you,  now,  the  gram- 
matical name  for  the  subject  of  a  proposition  1  It  is  called,  some- 
times, the  "  subject ; "  because  it  is  the  subject  about  which  the 
other  words  in  a  sentence  tell  us  something.  But  there  is  an- 
other name  for  it,  which  belongs  to  grammar  only,  —  the  "  nomi- 
native^^'' or  name,  because  it  is  the  name  of  the  subject  of  the  pro- 
position, or  the  word  which  stands  for  it.  Can  you  tell  me  now 
the  nominative  in  all  the  sentences  which  we  have  been  attending 
to  1  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Can  you  give  other  examples  ? 
A.   [accordingly.] 

Q.  Is  the  copula  of  a  proposition  always  expressed  separate- 
ly "?  Do  you  remember  an  example  of  a  proposition  in  which  it 
is  expressed  ?  —  of  one  in  which  it  is  not  expressed  ?  A.  [ac- 
cordingly.] —  Q.  In  grammar,  it  is  not  taken  notice  of  separate- 
ly, but  is  considered  as  belonging  to  the  predicate  and  forming  a 
part  of  it,  as  you  observed  when  we  added  s  to  ^^fall"  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  Rain  falls."    What  is  the  remaining  part,  then,  of  a  pro- 


214  APPENDIX. 

position  that  we  must  attend  to,  if  we  wish  to  know  all  its  parts 
grammatically'?  A.  The  predicate. —  Q.  Shall  I  tell  you  now 
its  grammatical  name  1  It  is  called  the  " vei-b"  or  word,  because 
it  is  the  important  word  in  a  sentence ;  since,  without  it,  we  could 
not  have  a  proposition,  or  a  thought,  expressed,  and  therefore 
could  not  have  a  sentence.  Can  you  tell  me  the  verb  in  every 
one  of  the  sentences  which  we  have  attended  to  ?  A.  [accord- 
ingly.] —  Q.    Can  you  give  other  examples  ?    A.   [accordingly.] 

Lesson  V.  —  Clauses. 

Q.  [After  writing,  on  the  blackboard,  the  sentence,  "  Heavy 
rain  already  falls,  thick  and  fast,  from  the  clouds."]  Into  how 
many  parts  do  the  commas  divide  this  sentence  ?  A.  Three.  — 
Q,  Shall  I  tell  you  the  grammatical  name  for  these  parts  ? 
They  are  called  "  clauses,'"  or  enclosures,  because  they  are  en- 
closed by  the  commas.  Can  you  tell  me  how  many  clauses  there 
are  in  this  sentence,  written  on  the  board  ?  —  "  Heavy  rain  al- 
ready falls,  thick  and  fast,  from  the  clouds ;  and  the  wind  blows 
hard."  A.  Four.  —  Q.  From  what  point  does  a  fourth  clause 
commence  1  A.  The  semicolon.  —  Q.  [After  writing  the  sen- 
tence, "  Heavy  rain  already  falls,  thick  and  fast,  from  the  clouds ; 
and  the  wind  blows  hard :  it  will  be  a  stormy  night."]  How  many 
clauses  are  there  in  this  sentence  1  A.  Pive.  —  Q.  From  what 
point  does  the  fifth  clause  commence  ?  A.  The  colon.  —  Q. 
[After  writing  the  sentence,  "  Heavy  rain  already  falls,  thick  and 
fast,  from  the  clouds ;  and  the  wind  blows  hard :  it  will  be  a 
stormy  night ;  and  I  fear  that  our  friends  will  be  anxious  about 
us,  unless  we  set  out  at  once,  and  drive  rapidly."]  How  many 
clauses  are  there  in  this  sentence  ?  A.  Eight.  —  Q.  What  points 
enclose  the  parts  of  this  sentence  1  A.  Commas,  semicolons,  a 
colon,  and  a  period.  —  Q.  Can  you  explain  to  me  what  a  clause 
is  ?  A.  It  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  separated  from  the  rest  by  one 
or  two  points.  —  Q.  Can  you  show  me,  from  your  reading-book, 
examples  of  sentences  which  have  but  one  clause  ?  —  two  —  three 
—  four  —  five  —  six  —  or  more  ?    A.   [accordingly.] 


ORAL    LESSONS.  215 


Lesson  VI.  —  Phrases. 


Q.  [After  writing  on  the  board  the  sentence,  "  Heavy  rain  al- 
ready falls,  thick  and  fast,  from  the  clouds."]  How  many  clauses 
did  you  say  there  are  in  this  sentence  1  A.  Three.  —  Q.  Can 
you  divide  these  clauses  themselves  1  Try,  by  reading  the  sen- 
tence slowly  and  carefully,  and  watching  whether  you  make  any 
pauses,  besides  those  which  you  make  at  the  points.  A.  We\ 
pause  a  little  at  "  Heavy  rain,"  before  we  read  "  already  falls."' 
—  Q.  And  does  not  that  pause  seem  to  join  the  two  words, 
"  Heavy  rain,"  and  the  two  words,  "  already  falls  V  Why  may 
we  not  pause  after  "  Heavy  "  and  after  "  already  "  1  A.  Because 
"  Heavy  "  belongs  to  "  rain,"  and  "  already  "  to  "  falls."  —  Q.  Why 
may  we  not  omit  a  pause  between  "  rain "  and  "  already,"  and 
join  them  to  one  another  ?  A.  Because  they  do  not  belong  to 
one  another.  —  Q.  Would  it  make  sense,  if  we  should  pause 
after  "  Heavy "  and  "  already,"  and  make  no  pause  between 
"  rain  "  and  "  already  "  1  A.  No.  —  Q.  Then,  in  reading,  we 
must  join  those  words  of  a  sentence  which  are  joined  in  sense, 
and  separate  those  which  are  separated  in  sense,  —  must  we  1 
What  did  we  call  those  clusters  of  words  which  are  enclosed  by 
points  ?  A.  Clauses.  —  Q.  Shall  I  tell  you,  now,  the  name  of 
those  little  clusters,  or  groups,  (as  we  sometimes  call  them,)  of 
words  which  belong  to  one  another,  in  sense,  and  are  smaller 
than  clauses,  and  therefore  have  no  points  to  enclose  them  "?  We 
call  them  "  phrases,''^  or  sayings,  because,  although  they  do  not, 
like  a  whole  sentence,  tell,  or  affirm,  something,  they  say  some- 
thing. Can  you  show  me  phrases  from  any  page  of  your  read- 
ing-book? A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  When  you  compare  clauses 
with  phrases,  what  would  you  say  of  clauses  ?  Are  they  any- 
thing more  than  longer  phrases  1  Let  us  see.  Is  there  any 
pause  to  be  made  in  the  clause  "  from  the  clouds,"  in  the  sentence 
we  have  been  studying  1  A.  No.  —  Q.  Is  it  not  a  phrase  then  ? 
A.  Yes.  —  Q.  Why  1  A.  Because  all  the  words  are  joined  in 
the  sense,  and  must  be  joined  in  reading.  —  Q.  Some  phrases 
then,  may  have  more  than  two  words  ?    A.    Yes ;  this  one  has 


216  APPENDIX. 

three.  —  Q.  Do  you  see  any  other  phrase,  in  this  sentence,  which 
is  both  a  clause  and  a  phrase  ?  A.  Yes ;  "  thick  and  fast."  — 
Q.  What  shall  we  say,  then,  that  a  phrase  is  1  A.  As  many 
words,  or  as  few,  as  are  closely  joined  in  sense,  whether  they 
make  a  clause  or  not.  —  Q.  Can  you  show  me,  from  your  read- 
ing-book, phrases  of  three,  four,  or  five  words  1    A.  [accordingly.] 

Lesson  VII.  —  Words,  Syllables,  Letters. 

Q.  We  have  been  dividing  sentences  into  clauses  and  phrases. 
Can  we  find  any  smaller  part  still  than  a  phrase  1  What  are 
phrases  made  of?  A.  Words.  —  Q.  And  what  are  words  made 
of  ?  A.  Syllables.  —  Q.  "  Syllables  "  means  taken  together,  or 
grouped.  Can  you  show  me  examples  of  syllables  ?  A.  [accord- 
ingly.] —  Q.  Do  you  remember  that  phrases  are  made  up  of  groups 
of  words'?  What  should  you  then  say  syllables  are  made  ofl 
A.  Groups  of  letters.  —  Q.  Is  there  any  smaller  part  of  a  sylla- 
ble than  a  letter  ?  A.  No.  —  Q.  Can  you  tell  me  now  what  is 
the  smallest  part  of  a  sentence  1    A.    A  letter. 

Q.  What  branch  of  education  do  we  call  that  which  teaches  us 
about  sentences,  words,  syllables,  and  letters?  A.  Grammar. — 
Q.  Do  you  know  any  one  word  which  we  can  use,  when  we  mean 
to  express  what  grammar  teaches  us.  We  say  arithmetic  teaches 
us  about  number,  geography  teaches  us  about  the  earth,  astronomy 
teaches  us  about  the  stars,  and  grammar  teaches  us  about  what  ? 
A.  Language.  —  Q.  And  language  is  made  up  of  what  ?  A. 
Sentences,  words,  syllables,  and  letters. —  Q.  Letters,  then,  are 
the  smallest  part  of  language.  If  we  wish  to  study  language, 
then,  what  must  we  begin  with,  if  we  wish  to  take  up  the  small- 
i  est  and  easiest  part  1  A.  Letters.  —  Q.  What  is  this  1  [Making 
;  a  short  perpendicular  line  on  the  blackboard.]  A.  A  mark.  — 
Q.  What  is  it  now  ?  [Drawing  a  short  hair-line  across  the  head 
and  foot  of  the  line.]  A.  It  is  the  letter  I.—  Q.  A  letter,  then, 
is  a  mark, —  a  mark  for  what  1  A.  A  sound  of  the  voice.  —  Q. 
Of  what  kind,  —  a  musical,  or  a  speaking  sound  1  A.  A  speak- 
ing sound.  —  Q.  How  many  letters  belong  to  our  language  ?  A. 
Twenty-six. 


ORAL    LESSONS.  217 


Lesson  VIII.  —  Oethoepy. 


Q.  If  there  are  twenty-six  letters  in  our  alphabet,  and  every 
letter  is  the  mark  for  a  sound  of  the  voice,  how  many  different 
sounds  must  there  be  in  our  language  ?  A.  Twenty-six.  —  Q. 
But  some  of  our  letters  have  several  different  sounds.  How  do 
we  sound  "  a  "  in  the  word  "  all "  ?  —  in  the  word  "  arm  "  —  in 
the  word  "  and  "  —  in  the  word  "  ale  "  —  in  the  word  "  air  "  ?  A. 
[accordingly.]  —  Q.  [After  exemplifying  the  various  sounds  of 
all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.]  You  observe,  then,  that,  al- 
though we  have,  in  our  alphabet,  but  twenty-six  letters,  we  have 
about  forty  different  sounds  represented  by  them.  Now,  as  all 
the  syllables  and  words  of  our  language  are  made  up  from  these 
forty  or  more  sounds,  what  must  we  know,  in  order  to  read  or 
speak  our  language  rightly  ?  A.  "We  must  know  these  sounds, 
and  how  to  put  them  together.  —  Q.  Do  you  wish  to  know  what 
that  part  of  grammar  is  called  which  teaches  us  about  these 
sounds  ?  It  is  called  "  orthoepy,'''  which  means  correct  speech  or 
pronunciation.  What  do  we  call  the  part  of  grammar  which 
teaches  us  to  pronounce  correctly  ?  A.  Orthoepy.  —  Q.  How 
does  grammar  teach  us  this  branch  of  language  1  It  gives  us 
certain  rules  in  our  grammar  book.  But  does  it  not  lead  us  to 
make  use  of  other  books  ?  What  do  we  learn  from  the  primer, 
the  spelling-book,  the  dictionary  'i  A.  How  to  spell  words,  and 
how  to  pronounce  them,  and  what  their  meaning  is.  —  Q.  Yes  ; 
grammar  is  meant  to  teach  us  everything  about  language,  even  to 
our  letters  ;  and  the  primer,  the  spelling-book,  and  the  dictionary, 
are  all  grammar  books,  because  they  all  teach  us  to  understand 
and  use  the  words  of  our  language  rightly.  When  I  am  talking, 
how  do  my  words  enter  into  your  minds  ?  Could  you  under- 
stand them,  if  you  were  deaf?  You  receive  them  into  your 
mind,  by  what  ?  A.  By  the  ear.  —  Q.  When  I  write  words 
on  the  blackboard,  or  when  you  read  them  in  a  book,  how  do  you 
receive  them  into  your  mind,  —  by  what  ?  A.  By  the  eye.  —  Q. 
What  kind  of  language  do  we  call  that  in  which  words  come 
from  the  voice  to  the  ear  ?  A.  Speech,  —  spoken  language.  — 
19 


218  APPENDIX. 

Q.    What  do  we  call  that  which  comes  from  letters  to  the  eye  ? 

—  A.  Writing,  —  written  language,  —  printing. —  Q.  Which 
kind  of  language  does  orthoepy  teach  us?  A.  Spoken  lan- 
guage. 

Lesson  IX.  —  Orthogeaphy. 

Q.  How  is  spoken  language  changed  into  written  language  ? 
Letters,  you  said,  are  marks  for  speaking  sounds  or  speech. 
How,  then,  may  we  communicate,  by  language,  with  persons  who 
are  at  a  great  distance  from  us,  —  in  another  part  of  the  world 
perhaps,  —  or  how  may  our  words  be  brought  to  the  minds  of 
people  after  we  are  dead  ?  A.  By  writing  or  printing.  —  Q. 
What  is  writing  or  printing  ?  —  A.  Making  marks  for  the  sounds 
which  we  should  make  if  we  were  speaking.  When  people  read 
these  marks,  they  will  know  our  words,  and  understand  our  mean- 
ing. —  Q.  What  kind  of  language  do  we  call  this  ?  A.  Writ- 
ten language.  —  Q.  Can  you  tell  me  the  name  of  the  part  of, 
grammar  which  teaches  us  written  language  1  A.  Orthography. 
-^  Q.  "  Orthography  "  means  correct  writing,  —  the  correct  writ- 
ing of  language,  —  not  the  penmanship,  but  what  1  A.    Spelling. 

—  Q.  What  do  we  learn,  then,  from  this  part  of  grammar  ?  A. 
To  put  the  proper  letters  and  syllables  into  words,  when  we  write 
them.  —  Q.  What  means  does  grammar  use  to  teach  us  this  part 
of  language  ?  How  are  we  taught  to  spell  correctly  ?  A.  By 
the  words  given  us  in  the  primer,  the  spelling-book,  and  the  dic- 
tionary, and  by  rules  in  the  grammar  book  itself.  —  Q.  Now  you 
will  understand  why  the  science  of  language  is  called  "  grammar" 
The  word  " grammar"  signifies  turiting ;  and,  as  it  requires  more 
knowledge  of  language  to  write  it  correctly,  than  to  speak  it,  the 
part  of  language  which  requires  most  scientific  knowledge,  the 
written  part,  —  is  that  which  we  are  supposed  to  be  chiefly  study- 
ing, when  we  are  learning  language.    Hence  it  is  called  grammar. 

—  Why  is  grammar  so  called  ?  A.  Because  it  is  meant  princi- 
pally to  teach  written  language.  I 

Note.  —  The  exercises  prescribed  in  this  manual,  for  young  pu- 
pils, are  designed,  chiefly,  for  practice  in  the  first  stages  of  gram- 


ORAL   LESSONS.  219 

mar,  —  orthoepy,  orthography,  and  etymology  so  far  only  as  re- 
gards derivation.  The  examples  of  explanatory  oral  instruction, 
are  accordingly  limited  to  these  branches,  and  are  carried  no  far- 
ther, in  these,  than  is  necessary  for  the  intelligent  performance  of 
the  exercises. 


Introductory  Explanations^  designed  for  very  young  PupihM 

Lesson  I. —  Grammar. 

Questions,  by  the  Teacher.  How  many  of  this  class  know  what 
botany  is.  What  does  it  teach  us  ?  Answer,  by  the  Pupils.^  About 
flowers.  —  Q.  Yes ;  and  about  trees,  and  shrubs,  and  vegetables, 
and  weeds.  By  what  one  word  may  we  call  all  these?  A. 
Plants.  —  Q.  How  many  know  what  astronomy  is  ?  What  does 
it  teach  us  ?  A.  About  the  stars. —  Q.  If  I  were  going  to  teach 
you  botany,  what  must  I  do  ?  A.  Give  us  books  with  pictures 
that  would  tell  us  all  about  flowers.  —  Q.  Might  I  not  rather 
bring  some  flowers,  and  show  them  to  you,  so  that  you  might  see 
all  their  parts,  and  be  able  to  describe  them  yourselves,  and  then 
hear  what  more  I  could  tell  you  about  them,  and  what  the  books 
would  tell  you  1  A.  That  would  be  best.  —  Q.  If  I  were  going 
to  teach  you  astronomy,  what  must  1  do  1    A.    Give  us  books 

*  A  useful  and  interesting  course  of  elementary  lessons  and 
exercises  on  words,  may  be  advantageously  commenced,  long  be- 
fore pupils  have  attained  the  age  at  which  it  would  be  advisable 
to  propose  systematic  lessons  from  any  treatise  on  grammar. 
Children  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven  years,  may,  —  if  the  author  of 
this  manual  may  judge  from  repeated  experience,—  be  easily  led 
to  take  an  interest  as  earnest  and  as  intelligent  in  the  study  of 
words,  as  in  that  of  the  most  attractive  specimens  in  natural  his- 

t  In  the  earliest  stages  of  instruction,  there  is  no  impropriety  in 
the  answer  to  a  question  being  given  by  the  teacher,  when  it  can- 
not be  obtained  from  the  pupils  themselves.  It  is  preferable,  how- 
ever, to  vary  the  form  of  a  question,  and  even  to  put  leading  ques- 
tions, if  the  subject  is  at  all  accessible  to  the  pupil's  own  mind. 


220  APPENDIX. 

Ml  of  figures,  and  pictures  of  the  stars.  —  Q.  Should  you  not 
understand  better,  if  I  should  have  you  come  to  me,  on  clear  even- 
ings, and  have  you  look  at  the  stars,  while  I  pointed  them  out  to 
you,  and  told  you  what  I  knew  about  them?  A.  Yes. —  Q. 
Should  you  not  then  understand  the  figures  and  pictures  in  your 
books  much  better  ?    A.    Yes. 

Q.  How  many  of  this  class  know  what  grammar  is  ?  What  do 
we  learn  when  we  study  grammar  ?  A.  How  to  talk  right,  — 
how  to  write  letters,  —  how  to  write  compositions.  —  Q.  Yes ; 
how  to  speak  and  write  correctly.  I  once  heard  a  little  boy  say, 
"  The  cars  is  comin'."    Was  that  speaking  correctly  ?    A.    No. 

—  Q.    What  should  he  have  said  ?    A.    "  The  cars  are  coming." 

—  Q.  Yes ;  and  when  that  boy  has  studied  grammar,  he  will 
know  why  he  should  not  say,  "  The  cars  is  comin',"  and  why  he 
should  say,  "  The  cars  are  coming." 

Lesson  II.  —  Language. 

Q.  You  said  grammar  teaches  us  how  to  talk  correctly  and 
write  correctly.  Now,  can  any  one  tell  me  a  word  which  I  may 
use  correctly,  if  I  mean  either  speaking  or  writing,  and  that  will 
do  for  the  one  just  as  well  as  for  the  other?  A.  No.  —  Q.  Well, 
if  you  cannot  tell  me  one,  let  me  tell  you  one.  [The  teacher  writes 
or  prints,  on  the  blackboard,  "  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak  and 
write  correctly."] — What  have  I  done  ?  A.  You  have  written, 
"  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  correctly."  —  Q.  [After 
uttering  the  words,  "  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  cor- 
rectly."] What  have  I  done  now  ?  A.  You  have  said,  "  Gram- 
mar teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  correctly."  —  Q.  [Pointing 
to  the  blackboard.]  You  call  this  written  what  ?  A.  Written 
words.  —  Q.  What  do  you  call  this  ?  [Repeating  the  words 
orally.]  A.  Spoken  words.  —  Q.  Should  you  understand  me, 
if  I  called  this,  [pointing  to  the  words  on  the  blackboard,]  written 
language,  and  this,  [repeating  the  words,  orally,]  spoken  language  ? 
A.  Yes.  —  Q.  Should  you  understand  me,  then,  if  I  said, 
"  Grammar  teaches  us  to  use  language  correctly,"  or,  "  the  correct 
use  of  language  ? "    A.    Yes.  —  Q.    Now  can  you  tell  me  what 


ORAL    LESSONS.  221 

word  means  the  same  thing  as  spoken  words  or  written  words  1 
A.    Language. 

Lesson  IIL  —  Words. 

Q.  If  I  am  to  teach  you  grammar,  or  the  correct  use  of  lan- 
guage, what  must  I  do  ?  Can  I  give  you  anything  to  handle  and 
I  examine,  as  I  would  hand  you  a  flower,  if  I  were  going  to  teach 
you  botany  ?  Can  I  show  you  language,  in  any  way  %  A.  You 
can  show  us  words.  —  Q.  How  1  A.  You  can  speak  words ; 
and  we  shall  hear  them.  —  Q.  Can  I  show  you  words  in  any 
other  way "?  A.  You  can  write  words  on  the  blackboard  for  us 
to  see.  —  Q.  Can  I  show  you  words  in  any  other  way  1  A.  You 
can  show  them  to  us  in  books.  —  Q.  [Showing  a  book.]  What 
is  this  1  A.  A  book.  —  Q.  [Showing  a  page  of  a  music-book.] 
What  do  you  see  in  this  book  1    A.    Marks  for  singing, — notes. 

—  Q.  [Showing  a  page  of  a  reading-book.]  What  do  you  see  in 
this  book  1  A.  Words.  —  Q.  Some  of  you  said  the  music-book 
has  marks  for  singing.  What  may  we  say  the  reading-book  has  ? 
A.  Marks  for  reading.  —  Q.  Can  we  look  at  these  marks,  and 
examine  them,  and  so  understand  what  they  mean  1  A.  Yes.  — 
Q.  When  we  look  at  a  flower  and  examine  it,  so  as  to  know 
every  part  of  it,  what  are  we  studying  1  A.  A  flower.  —  Q* 
What  science  did  you  say  teaches  us  about  flowers  ?    A.    Botany. 

—  Q.  May  we  say  rightly,  that,  when  we  are  studying  a  flower, 
we  are  learning  botany  ?  A.  Yes.  —  Q.  When  we  are  looking 
at  a  word,  and  are  trying  to  understand  and  read  it  rightly,  what 
are  we  studying  1  A.  A  word.  —  Q.  What  did  you  say  we  may 
call  written  or  printed  or  spoken  words?  A.  Language. —  Q. 
What  science  teaches  us  about  language  1  A.  Grammar.  —  Q. 
When  we  are  studying  words,  then,  what  are  we  learning  ?  A. 
Grammar.  —  Q.  Why  do  we  learn  grammar  1  A.  To  be  able 
to  speak  and  write  correctly.  —  Q.  To  speak  and  write  what  ? 
A.  Words. —  Q.  To  learn  grammar,  then,  we  must  study  what  ? 
A.    Words. 

19* 


222  APPENDIX. 


Lesson  IV.  —  Compound  Words. 

Q.  If  I  were  teaching  you  botany,  and  we  were  examining  a 
flower,  we  would  look  carefully  at  every  part  of  it.  Can  you  tell 
me  the  names  of  some  of  the  parts  of  a  flower  1  A.  Yes :  the 
root,  the  stalk,  the  leaves,  the  blossom.  —  Q.  Well,  words  have 
several  parts  which  we  can  examine.  [After  writing,  on  the 
blackboard,  the  word  sunshine.]  How  many  parts  has  that  word  1 
A.  Two,  —  sun  and  shine.  —  Q.  How  many  parts  has  each  of 
these  words,  —  Moonshine,  sunlight,  moonlight,  lamplight,  schoolroom, 
pathway  ?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Can  you  name  some  words 
of  two  parts  like  those  which  we  have  been  dividing  1  A.  [ac- 
cordingly.] —  Q.  Can  you  divide  these  words,  —  Uphold,  uplift, 
sheep/old,  vineyard,  manful,  highland,  lowland,  treetop,  blackboard, 
goodnatured?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Into  how  many  parts 
have  you  divided  all  these  words?  A.  Into  two. —  Q.  Can 
you  divide  these  words  into  parts,  —  Foretopmast,  gentlemanlike, 
foretopgallantsail  ?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Into  how  many  parts 
have  you  divided  these  ?    A.    Two  into  three,  and  one  into  four. 

—  Q.  Do  the  parts  of  these  words  all  make  words  by  themselves 
if  we  separate  them  from  one  another  1  A.  Yes.  —  Q.  Shall  I 
tell  you  the  name  by  which  we  call  all  words  of  this  kind  ?  They 
are  called  "  compound "  words,  because  they  are  compounded,  or 
made  up  of  simple  or  single  words.  Can  you  tell  me  anything 
else,  besides  words,  which  is  compounded,  or  made  up,  of  single 
things'?  What  is  this  book  compounded  of?  A.  Paper  and 
leather.  —  Q.    What  kind  of  book  is  it  ?    A.    A  spelling-book. 

—  Q.  What  sort  of  word  is  spelling-book,  —  simple  or  compound  ? 
A.  Compound.  —  Q.  Why  ?  A.  Because  it  is  compounded 
of  spelling  and  book.  —  Q.  [After  writing  on  the  blackboard  the 
word  treetop.]  Have  I  divided  this  word  into  parts,  or  written  it 
as  one  word  ?  A.  As  one  word.  —  Q.  [After  writing  the  word 
spelling-book.]  Have  I  written  spellingbook  as  one  word,  or  divided 
it  into  two?  A.  You  have  divided  it  into  two.— Q.  How? 
A.  By  that  little  mark.— -Q.  Would  you  like  to  know  its 
name  ?    We  call  it  a  "  hyphen.''    Can  you  show,  in  any  page  of 


ORAL    LESSONS.  223 

your  Reader,  compound  words  divided  by  a  hyphen  ?  A.  [ac- 
cordingly.] —  Q.  How  did  you  divide  the  compound  word  up- 
hold ?  A,  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  What  does  uphold  mean  ?  A. 
To  hold  up.  —  Q.  Can  you  divide  all  the  other  words,  and  tell 
me  their  meanings  ?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Do  you  observe 
that  when  we  divide  such  words  we  see  their  meaning  more  plain- 
ly ?  A  part  of  the  study  of  words  then,  you  observe,  is  to  di- 
vide compound  words  into  the  simple  words  of  which  they  are 
made  up,  so  as  to  understand  the  meaning  of  compound  words 
more  fully.  Can  you  divide  these  compound  words,  and  tell 
their  meaning, — Milkman^  newsboy^  housemaid^  haystack,  homestead, 
farmhouse,  door-bell,  fire-shovel,  barn-yard,  housetop,  hillside,  roof-tree, 

hellringer'?    A.   [accordingly.] 

« 

Lesson  V.  —  Syllables. 

Q.  You  have  divided  compound  words  into  parts  according 
to  their  meaning.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  way  in  which 
words  may  be  divided  1  [After  writing  on  the  blackboard  the 
word  Speaker.'\  Can  you  read  this  word  very  slowly  and  distinct- 
ly ?  A.  [accordingly.]  —  Q.  Into  how  many  parts  do  you  di- 
tide  the  word?  A.  Two. —  Q.  [After  writing  the  word  thus, 
on  the  blackboard,  Spea-ker.]  Have  I  written  the  word  as  you 
divided  it,  when  you  read  it  1  No.  —  Q.  [After  writing  the  word 
thus,  Speah-er^  Have  I  divided  it  rightly  now  1  A.  Yes.  Q. 
You  see,  then,  that  we  may  divide  spoken  words  by  the  voice,  al- 
though they  are  not  compound  words,  and  that  we  may  divide 
written  words  by  the  hyphen  into  the  same  parts  which  they  would 
have,  if  they  were  spoken  words.  Now,  can  you  tell  me  why  we 
must  divide  this  word  speaker,  by  the  voice,  into  two  parts,  one 
ending  with  k,  and  the  other  beginning  with  e  ?  A.  The  sounds 
seem  to  go  so,  themselves.  —  Q.  Yes ;  that  is  the  easiest  way  to 
pronounce  the  word.  Can  you  divide,  in  this  way,  these  words,  — 
Unkind,  matily,  goodness,  delay,  before,  advance,  return,  unkindness, 
manliness,  delaying,  advancement,  retreating,  unmusical,  recovery,  in- 
gratitude, indiscreetly,  imprudently,  uninteresting,  disinterested,  un- 
generously, unintelligible,  incomprehensible,  incontiwertibly  ?    A.   [ac- 


224  APPENDIX. 

cordingly,  naming  the  syllables  successively.]  Q.  Into  how 
many  parts  did  you  divide  some  of  these  words  1    A.    Into  two. 

—  Q.  Into  how  many  did  you  divide  the  rest  1  A.  Some  into 
three,  some  into  four,  some  into  five,  and  some  into  six.  —  Q. 
How  did  you  divide  them  ?  —  in  what  way  ?  A.  The  way  the 
sounds  seemed  to  go,  themselves.  —  Q.  Shall  I  tell  you  the 
name  which  we  give  to  the  parts  of  words,  when  we  divide  them 
so  ?  We  call  them  "  syllables.^^  What  do  we  call  the  parts  of 
words  into  which  they  seem  to  divide  most  easily  for  the  voice  ? 
A.  Syllables.  —  Q.  Can  you  show  me  examples,  in  your  spel- 
ling-book, of  words  divided  into  two,  —  three,  —  four,  —  five, — 
and  six  syllables  ?    A.   [accordingly.] 

9 

Lesson  VI.  —  Letters. 

Q.  What  name  did  we  give  to  the  parts  of  words,  when  we 
divide  them  by  the  voice,  or  by  a  hyphen  ?  A.  Syllables.  —  Q. 
Can  we  divide  syllables  themselves  1  When  I  speak  the  word 
"  uphold,"  into  what  syllables  do  I  divide  it  with  my  voice  1  A. 
Up  and  hold.  —  Q.  How  many  sounds  do  I  make  when  I  say 
"  «p  "  ?  A.  Two.  —  Q.  What  are  they  1  A.  [The  sounds  of 
the  letters  given.]  —  C^-  When  I  say  "  hold,^^  how  many  sounds 
do  I  make  ?  A.  Four.  —  Q.  What  are  they  1  A.  [The  sounds 
of  the  letters  given.]  —  Q.  Spoken  words,  then,  are  divided  into 
syllables,  and  syllables  into  what  1  A.  Sounds. —  Q.  How  are 
written  words  divided  ?  A.  Into  syllables.  —  Q.  How  1  A. 
By  hyphens. —  Q.  And  how  are  syllables  divided,  in  written 
words  'i  A.  Into  letters.  —  Q.  What  are  letters,  in  written 
words,  meant  for  ?  A.  The  sounds  that  we  make  in  speaking 
the  syllables.  —  Q.  May  we  not  say,  then,  that  letters  are  marks 
for  the  sounds  of  the  voice  in  reading  and  speaking  ?    A.    Yes. 

—  Q.  Is  there  any  part  of  spoken  language  smaller  than  a  single 
sound  of  the  voice "?  A.  No.  —  Q.  Is  there  any  part  of  written 
language  smaller  than  a  letter?  A.  No.— Q.  What  did  you 
say  was  the  name  for  the  part  of  education  that  teaches  us  about 
language  ?  A.  Grammar.—  Q.  When  we  begin  to  learn  gram- 
mar, then,  and  begin  with  the  simplest  and  easiest  part  of  it,  what 


ORAL    LESSONS*.  '  225 

V  ♦  t 

shall  we  study  ?  A.  Letters.  —  Q.  What  dp  we^call  the  letters, 
of  our  language,  wh^n  >ve  call  them  all  b]^'one  word  ?  A.  The 
alphabet.  —  Q.  You  all  know  the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet. Can  you  tell  me  their  sounds  one  by  one?  [Keview 
the  elementary  sounds  of  the  language,  throughout.]  —  Q.  Why 
do  we  study  the  sounds  of  letters  ?  Can  we  pronounce  the  syl- 
lables of  a  word  correctly  if  we  give  wrong  sounds  to  the  letters  ? 
A.  No.  —  Q.  Can  we  pronounce  words  correctly  if  we  do  not 
give  the  syllables  their  proper  sounds  ?  A.  No.  —  Q.  To  read 
and  to  speak  correctly,  then,  we  must  be  able  to  give  all  the  let- 
ters, in  every  word  which  we  pronounce,  their  right  sounds.  How 
do  we  learn  to  give  the  sounds  of  letters  correctly  ?  A.  By 
spelling  in  the  primer  and  the  spelling-book,  and,  afterwards,  by 
reading  lessons  in  other  books,  and  in  the  dictionary.  —  Q.  How 
do  we  study  written  language  ?  A.  By  learning  to  write  words 
with  their  proger  letters.  —  Q.  What  do  we  call  this  1  A.  Spel- 
ling. —  Q.  How  do  we  study  written  spelling  ?  A.  By  learning 
lessons  in  the  primer,  and  the  spelling-book,  and  in  other  books, 
and  in  the  dictionary.  —  Q.  How  do  we  learn  such  lessons,  in 
written  language  ?    A.    By  writing  or  printing  them. 


15 


U/iiotiD;sIrn J  library, 


E  S  T  A  B  £^I^E§g^JyppU^^ 

SCHOOL  BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED    BY 

WHITTEMORE,  NILES  &  HALL, 

114:  "Wasliington  Street^  Boston* 


AND  RUSSEIili'S  PRIMARY  SflRIES,  viz  t 


T; 


THE  PRIMER ;  or,  First  Book  of  Russell's  Elementary  Series 

of  Reading  Books. 
INTRODUCTION    TO  PRIMARY  READER;    or,  Second 

Book  of  Russell's  Series. 
PRIMARY  READER;  or,  Third  Book  of  Russell's  Series. 
SEQUEL   TO    PRIMARY   READER;   or,  Fourth  Book  of 

Russell's  Series. 
RUSSELL'S   SPELLING  BOOK.    A  Course  of  Lessons  in 

Reading  and  Spelling,  to  accompany  Russell's  Series  ofj 

Readers. 
RUSSELL'S  NEW  SPELLING  BOOK. 
INTRODUCTION  TO   AMERICAN -SCHOOL  READER. 

Designed  to  precede  the  American  School  Reader.    By  Wm. 

Russell  and  John  Goldsbury. 
AMERICAN  SCHOOL  READER  AND  SPEAKER.    A  Se- 
lection of  Prose  and  Verse,  with  Rules  for  Reading  and 

Speaking.    By  Goldsbury  and  Russell. 

To  persons  unacquainted  with  the  peculiar  character  of  these 
books  the  publishers  would  oflfer  them  as  possessing  the  following 
prominent  advantages.  They  are  entirely  free  from  matter  frivo- 
lous or  low  in  character.  Committees  and  teachers  speak  in  the 
highest  terms  of  the  superior  tone  of  intellectual  and  moral  influence 
which  they  produce.  They  are  so  planned  as  to  secure  the  advan- 
tage of  a  complete  progressive  course  of  instruction  in  the  art  of  read- 
ing. Pupils  trained  on  the  series,  throughout,  become  accom- 
plished and  impressive  readers. 

The  spelling  book  of  this  series  is  arranged  on  a  plan  distinct 
and  original,  presenting —  1st,  a  selection  of  such  words  as  child- 
ren understand  and  use ;  2d,  of  such  as  they  do  not  themselves  use,  but 


which  they  undersliand  when  they  read  them,  or  when  they  hear 
them  used  by  othei» :  3d,  oj^  words  winch  childfen  rteed  to  have  ex- 
plained to  them,  and^iydh  they  can  not  fuU^'iifiderstand  or  rightly 
use  without  such  aid.    <i  •   • 

The  whole  series  is  the  fruit  of  long-continued  experience  and 
thorough-going  skill  in  the  business  of  instruction. 
THE  PRACTICAL  READER.    With  directions  for  Reading. 
By  Ekancis  T.  Russell. 


EMERSON'S  ARITHMETICS. 

THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  ARITHMETIC  IN  THREE 
PARTS.  By  Frederick  Emerson,  late  Principal  in  the 
Boylston  School,  Boston. 

PART  FIRST,  is  a  small  book*,  designed  for  the  use  of  young 
classes,  from  five  to  eight  years  of  age. 

PART  SECOND  contains  within  itself  a  complete  system  of 
Mental  and  Written  Arithmetic;  and  this  book,  without  the 
Third  Part,  is  sufficiently  extensive  for  common  schools. 

PART  THIRD,  for  advanced  scholars,  comprises  a  brief  re- 
view of  the  elementary  principles  of  Arithmetic,  and  a  full  de- 
velopment of  the  higher  operations,  with  extensive  commercial 
information. 

KEY  TO  PARTS  2nd  and  3rd. 

This  system  of  arithmetic  is  the  result  of  five  years'  labor, 
which  the  author  entered  upon  with  a  view  of  constructing  a 
standard  work,  that  would  justify  general  use  in  American  schools. 
The  effort  has  proved  completely  successful ;  and  the  ease  and 
rapidity  with  which  scholars  learn  arithmetic  from  these  books,  is 
truly  gratifying.  No  school  book  ever  published  in  the  United 
States  has  met  with  more  universal  approval,  than  Emerson's 
Arithmetics.  No  teacher  who  has  ever  once  used  the  books, 
would  be  induced  to  dispense  with  them. 

THE  AMERICAN  COMMON  SCHOOL  ARITHMETIC  — 
By  Rurus  Putnam. 


THE   ORIOINAL.  DUNTONIAN    SYSTEM  OF 
RAPID  WBITINO.  * 

In  Eleven  Numbers.    Revised  and  improved  upon  a  new  plan, 
with  copies  at  the  head  of  each  page,  and  directions  to  pupils ; 


combining  also  the  new  system  of  teaching  Punctuation  in 
connection  with  learning  to  write.  —  By  A.  R.  Ddnton. 

These  books  are  used  in  the  Schools  pf'Boston,  Salem,  Provi- 
dence, New  Bedford,  Newburyport,  Manchester,  and  elsewhere, 
and  are  now  being  extensively  introduced  throughout  the  Union, 
The  publishers  have  received  from  teachers  and  professors  of 

I  the  highest  standing  the  most  unqualified  recommendations  of 

I  DuntorCs  Revised  Series  of  Writing  Books. 

'  Thomas  Sherwin,  Francis  Gardner,  Joshua  Bates,  and  thirty 
others,  masters,  in  the  Boston  schools,  say :  —  "  Having  used  Mr. 
A.  R.  Dunton's  System  of  Penmanship  in  the  instruction  of  our 
pupils,  we  are  happy  to  state  that  we  hold  it  in  the  highest  esti- 
mation, and  would  recommend  it  to  all  who  wish  to  attain  a 
rapid,  easy,  and  elegant  handwriting.^^ 

John  i).  Philbrick,  Esq.,  Sup't  of  Schools  for  the  State  of  Con- 
necticut, says  :  "  I  did  not  decide  to  adopt  it  till  I  had  given  it  a 
careful  examination,  and  compared  it  with  many  other  systems. 
In  my  judgment  yours  is  far  superior  to  any  now  before  the  public. 
Its  results  in  this  school  (the  State  Normal)  have  been  entirely 
satisfactory ;  indeed,  they  have  exceeded  my  most  sanguine  ex- 
pectations." 

Prof.  John  P.  Marshal,  Tufts  College,  Somerville,  says  :  "  The 
plan  of  teaching  the  most  important  rules  of  punctuation  by 
making  them  serve  as  copies,  is  novel,  and  can  scarcely  fail  of 
being  profitable  to  the  scholar." 

COMER'S  BOOK-KEEPING. 

A  Simple  Method  of  Keeping  Books  by  Double  Entry,  without 
the  Formula  of  a  Journal.  —  By  G.  N.  Comer. 

Mr.  Comer  is  proprietor  of  Comer's  Commercial  College,  and 
has  been  long  and  favorably  known  as  an  accomplished  Account- 
ant, Instructor,  &c.  Twelve  thousand  copies  of  his  Book- Keep- 
ing have  been  sold,  and,  wherever  it  is  used,  it  has  the  acknow- 
ledged preference  over  every  other  System. 

BOOK-KEEPING  BLANKS : 

Adapted  to  any  system  of  Book-keeping,  including  Ledger, 
Journal,  Day-Book,  and  Cash,  fine  paper,  demi-quarto. 

Teachers  and  School  Committees  who  wish  to  examine  the 
iabove  books  can  have  copies,  gratis,  on  application  at  the  store 
'of  the  publishers. 


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